FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Parasites & vectors2020; 13(1); 148; doi: 10.1186/s13071-020-04020-6

Variation in disease phenotype is marked in equine trypanosomiasis.

Abstract: Equine trypanosomiasis is a severe and prevalent disease that has the greatest impact globally upon working equids due to its distribution across lower income countries. Morbidity and mortality rates are high; disease management strategies in endemic regions are ineffective and cost prohibitive. Individual variation in disease phenotype in other species suggests host factors could reveal novel treatment and control targets but has not been investigated in equids. Methods: A prospective clinical evaluation of equines presenting for a free veterinary examination was performed in hyperendemic villages in The Gambia. Age, body condition score and body weight were estimated by validated methods, and haematocrit and total protein concentration measured. Animals fulfilling 2 out of 5 clinical inclusion criteria (anaemia, poor body condition, pyrexia, history of abortion, oedema) for a diagnosis of trypanosomiasis received trypanocidal treatment with follow-up at 1 and 2 weeks. Blood samples underwent PCR analysis with specific Trypanosoma spp. primers and results were compared to the subject's clinical and clinicopathological features. A mixed effects generalised linear model was generated to evaluate the association of infection status with degree of pyrexia and anaemia. Results: Morbidity was high within examined (n = 641) and selected (n = 247) study populations. PCR status was not associated with a defined disease phenotype; there was intra- and inter-species variability. Donkeys were more frequently Trypanosoma spp.-positive (P < 0.001) and febrile (P < 0.001) than horses, but infected horses were more anaemic (P < 0.001), and in poorer body condition (P < 0.001) than donkeys. Sex was correlated to disease phenotype: males were more anaemic (P = 0.03) and febrile (P < 0.001). Haemoparasite co-infections were more common than a single infection. Conclusions: There was evidence of diversity in trypanosomiasis clinical signs plus variable disease phenotypes within equid subpopulations that warrant further investigation. The complex co-infection profile of field cases requires greater consideration to optimise disease management.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2020-03-21 PubMed ID: 32199454PubMed Central: PMC7085162DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04020-6Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research study focuses on the variation in equine trypanosomiasis, a severe disease impacting working equids (horses, donkeys, etc.) in lower-income countries. It explores the difference in disease phenotypes within infected equids and analyzes factors such as age, body condition, and PCR status in relation to the illness.

Objective and Methodology of the Study

  • The purpose of the study was to explore the variation in disease phenotype in equine trypanosomiasis cases and understand potential host factors which could help in improving treatments and control targets. It focuses on a scenario where conventional disease management strategies are not enough in endemic regions due to their ineffectiveness and high costs.
  • For this study, a group of equines from hyperendemic villages in The Gambia underwent clinical evaluation. The participants were selected based on certain criteria which include symptoms like anaemia, poor body condition, fever, history of abortion, and oedema.
  • Using PCR analysis (a laboratory technique used to generate thousands to millions of copies of a specific DNA sequence), the correlation between infections status and degree of fever and anaemia was evaluated. A mixed-effects generalized linear model helped the researchers to analyze these associations.

Findings of the Study

  • The study found a palpable number of morbidity cases within the examined and selected equine populations. However, the PCR status did not correlate with a defined disease phenotype, indicating a significant variability within the species.
  • Among different species of working equids, donkeys were found to be more frequently Trypanosoma spp.-positive and had more fever occurrences than horses. Conversely, infected horses were found to be more anaemic and their physical condition was more deteriorated than that of donkeys.
  • The gender of the equids also showed correlations to the disease phenotype. Males were found to experience more anaemia and had a higher rate of fever than females.
  • A higher occurrence of haemoparasite co-infections was seen compared to a single infection, suggesting that the complex co-infection profile of field cases requires deeper exploration to enhance disease management.

Conclusion of the Study

  • The study concluded that there exists considerable diversity in the clinical signs of trypanosomiasis and variable disease phenotypes within equid populations, necessitating further investigation.
  • This research emphasizes the need to consider the intricate co-infection profile of on-field cases to improve disease management strategies and treatment protocols for equine trypanosomiasis.

Cite This Article

APA
Raftery AG, Jallow S, Coultous RM, Rodgers J, Sutton DGM. (2020). Variation in disease phenotype is marked in equine trypanosomiasis. Parasit Vectors, 13(1), 148. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-020-04020-6

Publication

Parasites & vectors
ISSN: 1756-3305
NlmUniqueID: 101462774
Country: England
Language: English
Volume: 13
Issue: 1
Pages: 148
PII: 148

Researcher Affiliations

Raftery, Alexandra G
  • The Weipers Centre Equine Hospital, Large Animal Clinical Sciences and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Road, Glasgow, UK. a.raftery.1@research.gla.ac.uk.
Jallow, Saloum
  • Gambia Horse and Donkey Trust, Sambel Kunda, Central River District, The Gambia.
Coultous, Robert M
  • Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
Rodgers, Jean
  • Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
Sutton, David G M
  • The Weipers Centre Equine Hospital, Large Animal Clinical Sciences and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Road, Glasgow, UK.

MeSH Terms

  • Age Factors
  • Animals
  • Coinfection / epidemiology
  • Coinfection / parasitology
  • Equidae / parasitology
  • Female
  • Fever
  • Gambia / epidemiology
  • Hematocrit
  • Horse Diseases / diagnosis
  • Horse Diseases / epidemiology
  • Horse Diseases / parasitology
  • Horse Diseases / physiopathology
  • Horses / parasitology
  • Male
  • Phenotype
  • Polymerase Chain Reaction / veterinary
  • Prospective Studies
  • Trypanosoma / genetics
  • Trypanosoma / isolation & purification
  • Trypanosomiasis / diagnosis
  • Trypanosomiasis / epidemiology
  • Trypanosomiasis / physiopathology
  • Trypanosomiasis / veterinary

Grant Funding

  • 190648 / The Donkey Sanctuary
  • 190895 / The Donkey Sanctuary

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors have declared that they have no competing interests.

References

This article includes 65 references
  1. Stringer A. Improving animal health for poverty alleviation and sustainable livelihoods.. Vet Rec 2014 Nov 29;175(21):526-9.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.g6281pubmed: 25431381google scholar: lookup
  2. Shiferaw YAB. Impact of working equids on livelihood in Ethiopia. 2011.
  3. Fielding D, Starkey P. Donkeys, people and development: a resource book of the animal traction network for western and southern Africa (ATNESA). Wageningen: Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA); 2004.
  4. Valette D. Invisible workers report. 2015.
  5. Pritchard JC. Animal traction and transport in the 21st century: getting the priorities right.. Vet J 2010 Dec;186(3):271-4.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.08.004pubmed: 20833088google scholar: lookup
  6. Upjohn M, Valette D. The relationship between working equids and women in developing countries. Equine Vet J 2014;46:20.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12323_46google scholar: lookup
  7. FAOSTAT F. Live animals. Rome: FAO; 2016.
  8. Burn CC, Dennison TL, Whay HR. Relationships between behaviour and health in working horses, donkeys, and mules in developing countries. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2010;126:109–118.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2010.06.007google scholar: lookup
  9. OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health). Terrestrial Animal Health Code. Chapter 17.12. Welfare of working equids. 2016.
  10. Stringer A, Lunn DP, Reid S. Science in brief: Report on the first Havemeyer workshop on infectious diseases in working equids, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, November 2013.. Equine Vet J 2015 Jan;47(1):6-9.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12359pubmed: 25257182google scholar: lookup
  11. Burn CC, Dennison TL, Whay HR. Environmental and demographic risk factors for poor welfare in working horses, donkeys and mules in developing countries.. Vet J 2010 Dec;186(3):385-92.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2009.09.016pubmed: 19926316google scholar: lookup
  12. Pinchbeck GL, Morrison LJ, Tait A, Langford J, Meehan L, Jallow S, Jallow J, Jallow A, Christley RM. Trypanosomosis in The Gambia: prevalence in working horses and donkeys detected by whole genome amplification and PCR, and evidence for interactions between trypanosome species.. BMC Vet Res 2008 Feb 20;4:7.
    doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-4-7pmc: PMC2263031pubmed: 18289378google scholar: lookup
  13. Duffy CW, Morrison LJ, Black A, Pinchbeck GL, Christley RM, Schoenefeld A, Tait A, Turner CM, MacLeod A. Trypanosoma vivax displays a clonal population structure.. Int J Parasitol 2009 Nov;39(13):1475-83.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2009.05.012pubmed: 19520081google scholar: lookup
  14. Dhollander S, Jallow A, Mbodge K, Kora S, Sanneh M, Gaye M, Bos J, Leak S, Berkvens D, Geerts S. Equine trypanosomosis in the Central River Division of The Gambia: a study of veterinary gate-clinic consultation records.. Prev Vet Med 2006 Aug 17;75(3-4):152-62.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2005.11.009pubmed: 16814418google scholar: lookup
  15. Faye D, Pereira de Almeida PJ, Goossens B, Osaer S, Ndao M, Berkvens D, Speybroeck N, Nieberding F, Geerts S. Prevalence and incidence of trypanosomosis in horses and donkeys in the Gambia.. Vet Parasitol 2001 Nov 5;101(2):101-14.
    doi: 10.1016/S0304-4017(01)00503-9pubmed: 11587839google scholar: lookup
  16. Sowe J, Gai B, Sumberg J, Gilbert E. Foaling and mortality of equines in The Gambia: a national survey. Animal traction for agricultural developement. In: Proceedings of the third workshop of the West Africa Animal Traction Network 1988. p. 7–12.
  17. The World Bank. Gambia. .
  18. FAOSTAT. The Gambia. Rome: FAO; 2014.
  19. International Trypanotolerance Centre. Draught animal power. 2017.
  20. Mattioli RC, Zinsstag J, Pfister K. Frequency of trypanosomosis and gastrointestinal parasites in draught donkeys in The Gambia in relation to animal husbandry.. Trop Anim Health Prod 1994 May;26(2):102-8.
    doi: 10.1007/BF02239909pubmed: 7941024google scholar: lookup
  21. Pearson RA. Husbandry and use of working horses and donkeys in the Gambia: a manual for livestock assistants. 1. Snetterton: ILPH; 2005.
  22. Morrison LJ, Vezza L, Rowan T, Hope JC. Animal African Trypanosomiasis: Time to Increase Focus on Clinically Relevant Parasite and Host Species.. Trends Parasitol 2016 Aug;32(8):599-607.
    doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2016.04.012pubmed: 27167665google scholar: lookup
  23. Berthier D, Brenière SF, Bras-Gonçalves R, Lemesre JL, Jamonneau V, Solano P, Lejon V, Thévenon S, Bucheton B. Tolerance to Trypanosomatids: A Threat, or a Key for Disease Elimination?. Trends Parasitol 2016 Feb;32(2):157-168.
    doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2015.11.001pubmed: 26643519google scholar: lookup
  24. Courtin D, Berthier D, Thevenon S, Dayo GK, Garcia A, Bucheton B. Host genetics in African trypanosomiasis.. Infect Genet Evol 2008 May;8(3):229-38.
    doi: 10.1016/j.meegid.2008.02.007pubmed: 18394971google scholar: lookup
  25. Yaro M, Munyard KA, Stear MJ, Groth DM. Combatting African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT) in livestock: The potential role of trypanotolerance.. Vet Parasitol 2016 Jul 30;225:43-52.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.05.003pubmed: 27369574google scholar: lookup
  26. Rodrigues CM, Batista JS, Lima JM, Freitas FJ, Barros IO, Garcia HA, Rodrigues AC, Camargo EP, Teixeira MM. Field and experimental symptomless infections support wandering donkeys as healthy carriers of Trypanosoma vivax in the Brazilian Semiarid, a region of outbreaks of high mortality in cattle and sheep.. Parasit Vectors 2015 Oct 28;8:564.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-015-1169-7pmc: PMC4625931pubmed: 26510460google scholar: lookup
  27. Snow WF, Wacher TJ, Rawlings P. Observations on the prevalence of trypanosomosis in small ruminants, equines and cattle, in relation to tsetse challenge, in The Gambia.. Vet Parasitol 1996 Nov 1;66(1-2):1-11.
    doi: 10.1016/S0304-4017(96)01003-5pubmed: 8988551google scholar: lookup
  28. Carroll CL, Huntington PJ. Body condition scoring and weight estimation of horses.. Equine Vet J 1988 Jan;20(1):41-5.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1988.tb01451.xpubmed: 3366105google scholar: lookup
  29. Kay G, Pearson RA, Ouassat M. Estimation of the liveweight of working mules in Morocco from their body measurements.. Vet Rec 2004 Jan 17;154(3):85-8.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.154.3.85pubmed: 14756504google scholar: lookup
  30. Pearson RA, Ouassat M. Estimation of the liveweight and body condition of working donkeys in Morocco.. Vet Rec 1996 Mar 9;138(10):229-33.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.138.10.229pubmed: 8686139google scholar: lookup
  31. Raftery AG, Jallow S, Rodgers J, Sutton DGM. Safety and efficacy of three trypanocides in confirmed field cases of trypanosomiasis in working equines in The Gambia: a prospective, randomised, non-inferiority trial.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019 Mar;13(3):e0007175.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007175pmc: PMC6447232pubmed: 30901321google scholar: lookup
  32. Masiga DK, Smyth AJ, Hayes P, Bromidge TJ, Gibson WC. Sensitive detection of trypanosomes in tsetse flies by DNA amplification.. Int J Parasitol 1992 Nov;22(7):909-18.
    doi: 10.1016/0020-7519(92)90047-Opubmed: 1459784google scholar: lookup
  33. Oura CA, Bishop RP, Wampande EM, Lubega GW, Tait A. Application of a reverse line blot assay to the study of haemoparasites in cattle in Uganda.. Int J Parasitol 2004 Apr;34(5):603-13.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2003.12.012pubmed: 15064125google scholar: lookup
  34. Gubbels JM, de Vos AP, van der Weide M, Viseras J, Schouls LM, de Vries E, Jongejan F. Simultaneous detection of bovine Theileria and Babesia species by reverse line blot hybridization.. J Clin Microbiol 1999 Jun;37(6):1782-9.
    doi: 10.1128/JCM.37.6.1782-1789.1999pmc: PMC84950pubmed: 10325324google scholar: lookup
  35. Criado-Fornelio A, Martinez-Marcos A, Buling-Saraña A, Barba-Carretero JC. Molecular studies on Babesia, Theileria and Hepatozoon in southern Europe. Part II. Phylogenetic analysis and evolutionary history.. Vet Parasitol 2003 Jun 11;114(3):173-94.
    doi: 10.1016/S0304-4017(03)00141-9pubmed: 12788253google scholar: lookup
  36. Massung RF, Slater K, Owens JH, Nicholson WL, Mather TN, Solberg VB, Olson JG. Nested PCR assay for detection of granulocytic ehrlichiae.. J Clin Microbiol 1998 Apr;36(4):1090-5.
    doi: 10.1128/JCM.36.4.1090-1095.1998pmc: PMC104695pubmed: 9542943google scholar: lookup
  37. Duncan J, Hadrill D. The professional handbook of the donkey. Yatesbury: Whittet Books Limited; 2008.
  38. Reed SM, Bayly WM, Sellon DC. Equine internal medicine. 3. St. Louis: Saunders; 2009.
  39. Burden FA, Hazell-Smith E, Mulugeta G, Patrick V, Trawford R, Brooks Brownlie HW. Reference intervals for biochemical and haematological parameters in mature domestic donkeys (Equus asinus) in the UK. Equine Vet Educ 2016;28:134–139.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12512google scholar: lookup
  40. . Clinicopathological reference ranges adult horses. Rossdales: Rossdales Laboratory; 2017.
  41. Mattioli RC, Zinsstag J, Pfister K. African horse sickness and equine infectious anaemia serology in The Gambia.. Trop Anim Health Prod 1992 Nov;24(4):207-8.
    doi: 10.1007/BF02356746pubmed: 1339038google scholar: lookup
  42. Tamzali Y. Equine piroplasmosis: an updated review. Equine Vet Educ 2013;25:590–598.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12070google scholar: lookup
  43. Rashid HB, Chaudhry M, Rashid H, Pervez K, Khan MA, Mahmood AK. Comparative efficacy of diminazene diaceturate and diminazene aceturate for the treatment of babesiosis in horses.. Trop Anim Health Prod 2008 Aug;40(6):463-7.
    doi: 10.1007/s11250-007-9121-2pubmed: 18575975google scholar: lookup
  44. Singh B, Banerjee DP, Gautam OP. Comparative efficacy of diminazene diaceturate and imidocarb dipropionate against Babesia equi infection in donkeys. Vet Parasitol 1980;7:173–179.
    doi: 10.1016/0304-4017(80)90020-5google scholar: lookup
  45. Hotchkiss JW, Reid SW, Christley RM. A survey of horse owners in Great Britain regarding horses in their care. Part 1: Horse demographic characteristics and management.. Equine Vet J 2007 Jul;39(4):294-300.
    doi: 10.2746/042516407X177538pubmed: 17722719google scholar: lookup
  46. Linklater WL, Cameron EZ, Minot EO, Stafford KJ. Feral horse demography and population growth in the Kaimanawa Ranges, New Zealand. Wildl Res 2004;31:119–128.
    doi: 10.1071/WR02067google scholar: lookup
  47. OIE. Manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals. 2017.
  48. Trindade S, Rijo-Ferreira F, Carvalho T, Pinto-Neves D, Guegan F, Aresta-Branco F, Bento F, Young SA, Pinto A, Van Den Abbeele J, Ribeiro RM, Dias S, Smith TK, Figueiredo LM. Trypanosoma brucei Parasites Occupy and Functionally Adapt to the Adipose Tissue in Mice.. Cell Host Microbe 2016 Jun 8;19(6):837-48.
    doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2016.05.002pmc: PMC4906371pubmed: 27237364google scholar: lookup
  49. Chamond N, Cosson A, Blom-Potar MC, Jouvion G, D'Archivio S, Medina M, Droin-Bergère S, Huerre M, Goyard S, Minoprio P. Trypanosoma vivax infections: pushing ahead with mouse models for the study of Nagana. I. Parasitological, hematological and pathological parameters.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2010 Aug 10;4(8):e792.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000792pmc: PMC2919405pubmed: 20706595google scholar: lookup
  50. Morrison WI, Wells PW, Moloo SK, Paris J, Murray M. Interference in the establishment of superinfections with Trypanosoma congolense in cattle.. J Parasitol 1982 Oct;68(5):755-64.
    doi: 10.2307/3280980pubmed: 7131183google scholar: lookup
  51. Balmer O, Stearns SC, Schötzau A, Brun R. Intraspecific competition between co-infecting parasite strains enhances host survival in African trypanosomes.. Ecology 2009 Dec;90(12):3367-78.
    doi: 10.1890/08-2291.1pubmed: 20120806google scholar: lookup
  52. Wise LN, Kappmeyer LS, Mealey RH, Knowles DP. Review of equine piroplasmosis.. J Vet Intern Med 2013 Nov-Dec;27(6):1334-46.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.12168pubmed: 24033559google scholar: lookup
  53. Thumbi SM, Bronsvoort BM, Poole EJ, Kiara H, Toye PG, Mbole-Kariuki MN, Conradie I, Jennings A, Handel IG, Coetzer JA, Steyl JC, Hanotte O, Woolhouse ME. Parasite co-infections and their impact on survival of indigenous cattle.. PLoS One 2014;9(2):e76324.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076324pmc: PMC3930515pubmed: 24586220google scholar: lookup
  54. Millott SM, Cox FE. Interactions between Trypanosoma brucei and Babesia spp. and Plasmodium spp. in mice.. Parasitology 1985 Apr;90 ( Pt 2):241-54.
    doi: 10.1017/S0031182000050952pubmed: 4000702google scholar: lookup
  55. Swart S. The horse as a cultural icon. Leiden: Brill; 2011. “Dark horses” the horse in Africa in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; pp. 241–260.
  56. Naessens J. Bovine trypanotolerance: A natural ability to prevent severe anaemia and haemophagocytic syndrome?. Int J Parasitol 2006 May 1;36(5):521-8.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2006.02.012pubmed: 16678182google scholar: lookup
  57. Ayo JO, Dzenda T, Zakari FO. Individual and diurnal variations in rectal temperature, respiration, and heart rate of pack donkeys during the early rainy season. J Equine Vet Sci 2008;28:281–288.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2008.03.003google scholar: lookup
  58. Olaifa F, Ayo JO, Ambali SF, Rekwot PI, Minka NS. Rectal temperature responses of donkeys administered with ascorbic acid and subjected to load carrying (packing) during the harmattan season in Nigeria.. Trop Anim Health Prod 2013 Feb;45(2):473-7.
    doi: 10.1007/s11250-012-0242-xpubmed: 22869338google scholar: lookup
  59. Garba UM, Sackey AKB, Lawal IA, Esievo KA. Clinical signs of experimental Trypanosoma Evansi infection in donkeys: ameliorative effects of isometamidium chloride and buparvaquone treatments. J Vet Adv 2015;5:891–901.
    doi: 10.5455/jva.20150413121927google scholar: lookup
  60. Auty H, Mundy A, Fyumagwa RD, Picozzi K, Welburn S, Hoare R. Health management of horses under high challenge from trypanosomes: a case study from Serengeti, Tanzania.. Vet Parasitol 2008 Jul 4;154(3-4):233-41.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.02.034pubmed: 18450381google scholar: lookup
  61. Zuk M, McKean KA. Sex differences in parasite infections: patterns and processes.. Int J Parasitol 1996 Oct;26(10):1009-23.
    doi: 10.1016/S0020-7519(96)80001-4pubmed: 8982783google scholar: lookup
  62. Klein SL. Hormonal and immunological mechanisms mediating sex differences in parasite infection.. Parasite Immunol 2004 Jun-Jul;26(6-7):247-64.
    doi: 10.1111/j.0141-9838.2004.00710.xpubmed: 15541029google scholar: lookup
  63. Rowlands GJ, Mulatu W, Authié E, d'Ieteren GD, Leak SG, Nagda SM, Peregrine AS. Epidemiology of bovine trypanosomiasis in the Ghibe valley, southwest Ethiopia. 2. Factors associated with variations in trypanosome prevalence, incidence of new infections and prevalence of recurrent infections.. Acta Trop 1993 Apr;53(2):135-50.
    doi: 10.1016/0001-706X(93)90025-7pubmed: 8098899google scholar: lookup
  64. Sahito H. A disease complex pathogen “trypanosoma congolense” transmitted by tsetse fly in donkeys. HJAFSR 2014;3:44–48.
  65. Trigunaite A, Dimo J, Jørgensen TN. Suppressive effects of androgens on the immune system.. Cell Immunol 2015 Apr;294(2):87-94.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2015.02.004pubmed: 25708485google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 2 times.
  1. Morrison LJ, Steketee PC, Tettey MD, Matthews KR. Pathogenicity and virulence of African trypanosomes: From laboratory models to clinically relevant hosts. Virulence 2023 Dec;14(1):2150445.
    doi: 10.1080/21505594.2022.2150445pubmed: 36419235google scholar: lookup
  2. Raftery AG, Gummery L, Garcia K, Mohite D, Capewell P, Sutton DGM. Equine trypanosomiasis, a systematic review and meta-analyses: Prevalence, morbidity and mortality. Equine Vet J 2026 Mar;58(2):291-319.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.70101pubmed: 41131780google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,928 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.