FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Vaccine / West Nile virus: recent trends in diagnosis and vaccine deve...
Vaccine2006; 25(30); 5563-5576; doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.12.005

West Nile virus: recent trends in diagnosis and vaccine development.

Abstract: West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus, native to Africa, Europe, and Western Asia. In many respects, WNV is an outstanding example of a zoonotic pathogen that has leaped geographical barriers and can cause severe disease in human and horse. Before the emergence of WNV in the USA, only few methods of diagnosis were available. Recently, many changes in the fields of WN diagnosis and prevention have happened. This paper will review all these new tools. After a description of the main concerns in WNV and West Nile (WN) disease in humans and animals, this review will present the main available tests for serology and virology detection, from gold standard tests to more recently developed methods. Finally, licensed vaccines and candidate vaccines developed in humans, horses and birds will also been described.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2006-12-22 PubMed ID: 17292514DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.12.005Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This research paper discusses the latest advancements in diagnosing West Nile virus and the development of vaccines to prevent it. The virus, which is often transmitted by mosquitoes and can cause severe disease in humans and animals, has seen considerable progress in terms of diagnostic methods and vaccine development.

Understand The West Nile Virus

  • West Nile virus (WNV) is described as a mosquito-borne flavivirus, originally found in regions such as Africa, Europe, and Western Asia. It is deemed as an excellent exemplar of zoonotic pathogens that have leapt over geographical barriers and have made both humans and horses prone to severe diseases.
  • In the course of the virus’s emergence in the United States, only a few diagnostic tools were available to detect it. However, there have been significant changes and improvements in the diagnosis and prevention of WNV.

Diagnosis Of West Nile Virus

  • The article provides a comprehensive a review of new diagnostic tools created to detect the presence of WNV. After presenting the main concerns and issues related to both WNV and the West Nile disease in humans and animals, the research paper moves on to outline the available tests for both the serology and virology detection of WNV.
  • The focus moves from the traditionally used ‘gold standard’ tests, to more recently developed methods which might provide more efficient and rapid diagnosis of WNV infections.

Vaccine development against West Nile Virus

  • In addition to the new diagnostic tools and testing methods, the research article also looks at the various vaccines licensed for use and those presently in development. It seems that there is a range of vaccines being developed for various affected species, including humans, horses, and birds.
  • This section delivers valuable insight into the progress and innovation being made in the fight against WNV and provides detailed descriptions of the vaccines that have already been developed and those that are still in the trial phase.

Cite This Article

APA
Dauphin G, Zientara S. (2006). West Nile virus: recent trends in diagnosis and vaccine development. Vaccine, 25(30), 5563-5576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.12.005

Publication

Vaccine
ISSN: 0264-410X
NlmUniqueID: 8406899
Country: Netherlands
Language: English
Volume: 25
Issue: 30
Pages: 5563-5576

Researcher Affiliations

Dauphin, G
  • AFSSA Alfort, UMR1161 (INRA-AFSSA-ENVA), 23 av Général de Gaulle, 94703 Maisons-Alfort Cedex, France.
Zientara, S

    MeSH Terms

    • Animals
    • Birds
    • Horses
    • Humans
    • Serologic Tests
    • West Nile Fever / diagnosis
    • West Nile Fever / immunology
    • West Nile Fever / prevention & control
    • West Nile Virus Vaccines / immunology
    • West Nile virus / genetics
    • West Nile virus / isolation & purification

    Citations

    This article has been cited 55 times.
    1. Nakagami H, Hayashi H, Sun J, Yanagida Y, Otera T, Nakagami F, Hamaguchi S, Yoshida H, Okuno H, Yoshida S, Nakamaru R, Yokoyama S, Fujimoto T, Hongyo K, Akeda Y, Morishita R, Tomono K, Rakugi H. Phase I Study to Assess the Safety and Immunogenicity of an Intradermal COVID-19 DNA Vaccine Administered Using a Pyro-Drive Jet Injector in Healthy Adults.. Vaccines (Basel) 2022 Aug 30;10(9).
      doi: 10.3390/vaccines10091427pubmed: 36146505google scholar: lookup
    2. Leng D, Yamada S, Chiba Y, Yoneyama S, Sakai Y, Hikono H, Murakami K. Co-administration of a plasmid encoding CD40 or CD63 enhances the immune responses to a DNA vaccine against bovine viral diarrhea virus in mice.. J Vet Med Sci 2022 Sep 1;84(9):1175-1184.
      doi: 10.1292/jvms.22-0085pubmed: 35793950google scholar: lookup
    3. Shoushtari M, Roohvand F, Salehi-Vaziri M, Arashkia A, Bakhshi H, Azadmanesh K. Adenovirus vector-based vaccines as forefront approaches in fighting the battle against flaviviruses.. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2022 Nov 30;18(5):2079323.
      doi: 10.1080/21645515.2022.2079323pubmed: 35714271google scholar: lookup
    4. Lopez-Cantu DO, Wang X, Carrasco-Magallanes H, Afewerki S, Zhang X, Bonventre JV, Ruiz-Esparza GU. From Bench to the Clinic: The Path to Translation of Nanotechnology-Enabled mRNA SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines.. Nanomicro Lett 2022 Jan 3;14(1):41.
      doi: 10.1007/s40820-021-00771-8pubmed: 34981278google scholar: lookup
    5. Simnani FZ, Singh D, Kaur R. COVID-19 phase 4 vaccine candidates, effectiveness on SARS-CoV-2 variants, neutralizing antibody, rare side effects, traditional and nano-based vaccine platforms: a review.. 3 Biotech 2022 Jan;12(1):15.
      doi: 10.1007/s13205-021-03076-0pubmed: 34926119google scholar: lookup
    6. Cui D, Espínola EE, Arora K, Brinton MA. Two Interferon-Stimulated Response Elements Cooperatively Regulate Interferon-Stimulated Gene Expression in West Nile Virus-Infected IFNAR(-/-) Mouse Embryo Fibroblasts.. J Virol 2021 Oct 27;95(22):e0104021.
      doi: 10.1128/JVI.01040-21pubmed: 34495694google scholar: lookup
    7. Qin F, Xia F, Chen H, Cui B, Feng Y, Zhang P, Chen J, Luo M. A Guide to Nucleic Acid Vaccines in the Prevention and Treatment of Infectious Diseases and Cancers: From Basic Principles to Current Applications.. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021;9:633776.
      doi: 10.3389/fcell.2021.633776pubmed: 34113610google scholar: lookup
    8. Schijns V, Majhen D, van der Ley P, Thakur A, Summerfield A, Berisio R, Nativi C, Fernández-Tejada A, Alvarez-Dominguez C, Gizurarson S, Zamyatina A, Molinaro A, Rosano C, Jakopin Ž, Gursel I, McClean S. Rational Vaccine Design in Times of Emerging Diseases: The Critical Choices of Immunological Correlates of Protection, Vaccine Antigen and Immunomodulation.. Pharmaceutics 2021 Apr 6;13(4).
      doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13040501pubmed: 33917629google scholar: lookup
    9. Saiz JC, Martín-Acebes MA, Blázquez AB, Escribano-Romero E, Poderoso T, Jiménez de Oya N. Pathogenicity and virulence of West Nile virus revisited eight decades after its first isolation.. Virulence 2021 Dec;12(1):1145-1173.
      doi: 10.1080/21505594.2021.1908740pubmed: 33843445google scholar: lookup
    10. Brake DA, Kuhn JH, Marsh GA, Beer M, Fine JB. Challenges and Opportunities in the Use of High and Maximum Biocontainment Facilities in Developing and Licensing Risk Group 3 and Risk Group 4 Agent Veterinary Vaccines.. ILAR J 2022 Jan 7;61(1):46-61.
      doi: 10.1093/ilar/ilab004pubmed: 33712856google scholar: lookup
    11. Kyriakidis NC, López-Cortés A, González EV, Grimaldos AB, Prado EO. SARS-CoV-2 vaccines strategies: a comprehensive review of phase 3 candidates.. NPJ Vaccines 2021 Feb 22;6(1):28.
      doi: 10.1038/s41541-021-00292-wpubmed: 33619260google scholar: lookup
    12. Argondizzo APC, Silva D, Missailidis S. Application of Aptamer-Based Assays to the Diagnosis of Arboviruses Important for Public Health in Brazil.. Int J Mol Sci 2020 Dec 26;22(1).
      doi: 10.3390/ijms22010159pubmed: 33375234google scholar: lookup
    13. Gamat-Huber M, Jeon D, Johnson LE, Moseman JE, Muralidhar A, Potluri HK, Rastogi I, Wargowski E, Zahm CD, McNeel DG. Treatment Combinations with DNA Vaccines for the Treatment of Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer (mCRPC).. Cancers (Basel) 2020 Sep 30;12(10).
      doi: 10.3390/cancers12102831pubmed: 33008010google scholar: lookup
    14. Tomar PS, Kumar JS, Patel S, Sharma S. Polymerase Spiral Reaction Assay for Rapid and Real Time Detection of West Nile Virus From Clinical Samples.. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020;10:426.
      doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00426pubmed: 32984063google scholar: lookup
    15. Jiménez de Oya N, Escribano-Romero E, Blázquez AB, Martín-Acebes MA, Saiz JC. Current Progress of Avian Vaccines Against West Nile Virus.. Vaccines (Basel) 2019 Sep 23;7(4).
      doi: 10.3390/vaccines7040126pubmed: 31547632google scholar: lookup
    16. Zannoli S, Sambri V. West Nile Virus and Usutu Virus Co-Circulation in Europe: Epidemiology and Implications.. Microorganisms 2019 Jun 26;7(7).
      doi: 10.3390/microorganisms7070184pubmed: 31248051google scholar: lookup
    17. Moon SA, Cohnstaedt LW, McVey DS, Scoglio CM. A spatio-temporal individual-based network framework for West Nile virus in the USA: Spreading pattern of West Nile virus.. PLoS Comput Biol 2019 Mar;15(3):e1006875.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006875pubmed: 30865618google scholar: lookup
    18. Cazeau G, Leblond A, Sala C, Froustey M, Beck C, Lecollinet S, Tapprest J. Utility of examining fallen stock data to monitor health-related events in equids: Application to an outbreak of West Nile Virus in France in 2015.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2019 May;66(3):1417-1419.
      doi: 10.1111/tbed.13150pubmed: 30773844google scholar: lookup
    19. Lafri I, Hachid A, Bitam I. West Nile virus in Algeria: a comprehensive overview.. New Microbes New Infect 2019 Jan;27:9-13.
      doi: 10.1016/j.nmni.2018.10.002pubmed: 30519477google scholar: lookup
    20. Hobernik D, Bros M. DNA Vaccines-How Far From Clinical Use?. Int J Mol Sci 2018 Nov 15;19(11).
      doi: 10.3390/ijms19113605pubmed: 30445702google scholar: lookup
    21. Beck C, Lowenski S, Durand B, Bahuon C, Zientara S, Lecollinet S. Improved reliability of serological tools for the diagnosis of West Nile fever in horses within Europe.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017 Sep;11(9):e0005936.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005936pubmed: 28915240google scholar: lookup
    22. Al-Jabi SW. Global research trends in West Nile virus from 1943 to 2016: a bibliometric analysis.. Global Health 2017 Aug 3;13(1):55.
      doi: 10.1186/s12992-017-0284-ypubmed: 28774315google scholar: lookup
    23. Nyamwaya D, Wang'ondu V, Amimo J, Michuki G, Ogugo M, Ontiri E, Sang R, Lindahl J, Grace D, Bett B. Detection of West Nile virus in wild birds in Tana River and Garissa Counties, Kenya.. BMC Infect Dis 2016 Nov 23;16(1):696.
      doi: 10.1186/s12879-016-2019-8pubmed: 27881079google scholar: lookup
    24. Coller KE, Berg MG, Frankel M, Forberg K, Surani R, Chiu CY, Hackett J Jr, Dawson GJ. Antibodies to the Novel Human Pegivirus 2 Are Associated with Active and Resolved Infections.. J Clin Microbiol 2016 Aug;54(8):2023-30.
      doi: 10.1128/JCM.00515-16pubmed: 27225404google scholar: lookup
    25. Cao Z, Wang H, Wang L, Li L, Jin H, Xu C, Feng N, Wang J, Li Q, Zhao Y, Wang T, Gao Y, Lu Y, Yang S, Xia X. Visual Detection of West Nile Virus Using Reverse Transcription Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification Combined with a Vertical Flow Visualization Strip.. Front Microbiol 2016;7:554.
      doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00554pubmed: 27148234google scholar: lookup
    26. Saiz JC, Vázquez-Calvo Á, Blázquez AB, Merino-Ramos T, Escribano-Romero E, Martín-Acebes MA. Zika Virus: the Latest Newcomer.. Front Microbiol 2016;7:496.
      doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00496pubmed: 27148186google scholar: lookup
    27. Beck C, Desprès P, Paulous S, Vanhomwegen J, Lowenski S, Nowotny N, Durand B, Garnier A, Blaise-Boisseau S, Guitton E, Yamanaka T, Zientara S, Lecollinet S. A High-Performance Multiplex Immunoassay for Serodiagnosis of Flavivirus-Associated Neurological Diseases in Horses.. Biomed Res Int 2015;2015:678084.
      doi: 10.1155/2015/678084pubmed: 26457301google scholar: lookup
    28. Sule WF, Oluwayelu DO, Adedokun RA, Rufai N, McCracken F, Mansfield KL, Johnson N. High seroprevelance of West Nile virus antibodies observed in horses from southwestern Nigeria.. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2015 Mar;15(3):218-20.
      doi: 10.1089/vbz.2014.1706pubmed: 25793479google scholar: lookup
    29. Fraisier C, Papa A, Granjeaud S, Hintzen R, Martina B, Camoin L, Almeras L. Cerebrospinal fluid biomarker candidates associated with human WNV neuroinvasive disease.. PLoS One 2014;9(4):e93637.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0093637pubmed: 24695528google scholar: lookup
    30. Arnal A, Gómez-Díaz E, Cerdà-Cuéllar M, Lecollinet S, Pearce-Duvet J, Busquets N, García-Bocanegra I, Pagès N, Vittecoq M, Hammouda A, Samraoui B, Garnier R, Ramos R, Selmi S, González-Solís J, Jourdain E, Boulinier T. Circulation of a Meaban-like virus in yellow-legged gulls and seabird ticks in the western Mediterranean basin.. PLoS One 2014;9(3):e89601.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089601pubmed: 24625959google scholar: lookup
    31. Beck C, Jimenez-Clavero MA, Leblond A, Durand B, Nowotny N, Leparc-Goffart I, Zientara S, Jourdain E, Lecollinet S. Flaviviruses in Europe: complex circulation patterns and their consequences for the diagnosis and control of West Nile disease.. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2013 Nov 12;10(11):6049-83.
      doi: 10.3390/ijerph10116049pubmed: 24225644google scholar: lookup
    32. Martín-Acebes MA, Saiz JC. West Nile virus: A re-emerging pathogen revisited.. World J Virol 2012 Apr 12;1(2):51-70.
      doi: 10.5501/wjv.v1.i2.51pubmed: 24175211google scholar: lookup
    33. Engler O, Savini G, Papa A, Figuerola J, Groschup MH, Kampen H, Medlock J, Vaux A, Wilson AJ, Werner D, Jöst H, Goffredo M, Capelli G, Federici V, Tonolla M, Patocchi N, Flacio E, Portmann J, Rossi-Pedruzzi A, Mourelatos S, Ruiz S, Vázquez A, Calzolari M, Bonilauri P, Dottori M, Schaffner F, Mathis A, Johnson N. European surveillance for West Nile virus in mosquito populations.. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2013 Oct 11;10(10):4869-95.
      doi: 10.3390/ijerph10104869pubmed: 24157510google scholar: lookup
    34. Sambri V, Capobianchi MR, Cavrini F, Charrel R, Donoso-Mantke O, Escadafal C, Franco L, Gaibani P, Gould EA, Niedrig M, Papa A, Pierro A, Rossini G, Sanchini A, Tenorio A, Varani S, Vázquez A, Vocale C, Zeller H. Diagnosis of west nile virus human infections: overview and proposal of diagnostic protocols considering the results of external quality assessment studies.. Viruses 2013 Sep 25;5(10):2329-48.
      doi: 10.3390/v5102329pubmed: 24072061google scholar: lookup
    35. Cargnelutti JF, Brum MC, Weiblen R, Flores EF. Stable expression and potential use of west nile virus envelope glycoproteins preM/E as antigen in diagnostic tests.. Braz J Microbiol 2011 Jul;42(3):1161-6.
      doi: 10.1590/S1517-838220110003000040pubmed: 24031737google scholar: lookup
    36. Iyer AV, Kousoulas KG. A review of vaccine approaches for West Nile virus.. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2013 Sep 10;10(9):4200-23.
      doi: 10.3390/ijerph10094200pubmed: 24025396google scholar: lookup
    37. Albayrak H, Ozan E. Seroepidemiological study of west nile virus and rift valley Fever virus in some of Mammalian species (herbivores) in northern Turkey.. J Arthropod Borne Dis 2013;7(1):90-3.
      pubmed: 23785699
    38. Sanchini A, Donoso-Mantke O, Papa A, Sambri V, Teichmann A, Niedrig M. Second international diagnostic accuracy study for the serological detection of West Nile virus infection.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013;7(4):e2184.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002184pubmed: 23638205google scholar: lookup
    39. Zhu B, Ye J, Lu P, Jiang R, Yang X, Fu ZF, Chen H, Cao S. Induction of antigen-specific immune responses in mice by recombinant baculovirus expressing premembrane and envelope proteins of West Nile virus.. Virol J 2012 Jul 16;9:132.
      doi: 10.1186/1743-422X-9-132pubmed: 22799608google scholar: lookup
    40. Lan DL, Wang CS, Deng B, Zhou JP, Cui L, Tang C, Yue H, Hua XG. Serological investigations on West Nile virus in birds and horses in Shanghai, China.. Epidemiol Infect 2013 Mar;141(3):596-600.
      doi: 10.1017/S0950268812001094pubmed: 22651924google scholar: lookup
    41. Hobson-Peters J. Approaches for the development of rapid serological assays for surveillance and diagnosis of infections caused by zoonotic flaviviruses of the Japanese encephalitis virus serocomplex.. J Biomed Biotechnol 2012;2012:379738.
      doi: 10.1155/2012/379738pubmed: 22570528google scholar: lookup
    42. De Filette M, Ulbert S, Diamond M, Sanders NN. Recent progress in West Nile virus diagnosis and vaccination.. Vet Res 2012 Mar 1;43(1):16.
      doi: 10.1186/1297-9716-43-16pubmed: 22380523google scholar: lookup
    43. Uhrlaub JL, Brien JD, Widman DG, Mason PW, Nikolich-Zugich J. Repeated in vivo stimulation of T and B cell responses in old mice generates protective immunity against lethal West Nile virus encephalitis.. J Immunol 2011 Apr 1;186(7):3882-91.
      doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1002799pubmed: 21339368google scholar: lookup
    44. Cheng G, Cox J, Wang P, Krishnan MN, Dai J, Qian F, Anderson JF, Fikrig E. A C-type lectin collaborates with a CD45 phosphatase homolog to facilitate West Nile virus infection of mosquitoes.. Cell 2010 Sep 3;142(5):714-25.
      doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2010.07.038pubmed: 20797779google scholar: lookup
    45. Monini M, Falcone E, Busani L, Romi R, Ruggeri FM. West nile virus: characteristics of an african virus adapting to the third millennium world.. Open Virol J 2010 Apr 22;4:42-51.
      doi: 10.2174/1874357901004020042pubmed: 20517488google scholar: lookup
    46. Koraka P, Martina BE, Osterhaus AD. Bioinformatics in new generation flavivirus vaccines.. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010;2010:864029.
      doi: 10.1155/2010/864029pubmed: 20467477google scholar: lookup
    47. Gershoni-Yahalom O, Landes S, Kleiman-Shoval S, Ben-Nathan D, Kam M, Lachmi BE, Khinich Y, Simanov M, Samina I, Eitan A, Cohen IR, Rager-Zisman B, Porgador A. Chimeric vaccine composed of viral peptide and mammalian heat-shock protein 60 peptide protects against West Nile virus challenge.. Immunology 2010 Aug;130(4):527-35.
      doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2010.03251.xpubmed: 20331473google scholar: lookup
    48. Venter M, Human S, Zaayman D, Gerdes GH, Williams J, Steyl J, Leman PA, Paweska JT, Setzkorn H, Rous G, Murray S, Parker R, Donnellan C, Swanepoel R. Lineage 2 west nile virus as cause of fatal neurologic disease in horses, South Africa.. Emerg Infect Dis 2009 Jun;15(6):877-84.
      doi: 10.3201/eid1506.081515pubmed: 19523285google scholar: lookup
    49. Rao SS, Styles D, Kong W, Andrews C, Gorres JP, Nabel GJ. A gene-based avian influenza vaccine in poultry.. Poult Sci 2009 Apr;88(4):860-6.
      doi: 10.3382/ps.2008-00360pubmed: 19276436google scholar: lookup
    50. Iyer AV, Boudreaux MJ, Wakamatsu N, Roy AF, Baghian A, Chouljenko VN, Kousoulas KG. Complete genome analysis and virulence characteristics of the Louisiana West Nile virus strain LSU-AR01.. Virus Genes 2009 Apr;38(2):204-14.
      doi: 10.1007/s11262-008-0321-2pubmed: 19130199google scholar: lookup
    51. Iyer AV, Pahar B, Boudreaux MJ, Wakamatsu N, Roy AF, Chouljenko VN, Baghian A, Apetrei C, Marx PA, Kousoulas KG. Recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus-based west Nile vaccine elicits strong humoral and cellular immune responses and protects mice against lethal challenge with the virulent west Nile virus strain LSU-AR01.. Vaccine 2009 Feb 5;27(6):893-903.
      doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.11.087pubmed: 19070640google scholar: lookup
    52. Bonafé N, Rininger JA, Chubet RG, Foellmer HG, Fader S, Anderson JF, Bushmich SL, Anthony K, Ledizet M, Fikrig E, Koski RA, Kaplan P. A recombinant West Nile virus envelope protein vaccine candidate produced in Spodoptera frugiperda expresSF+ cells.. Vaccine 2009 Jan 7;27(2):213-22.
      doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.10.046pubmed: 18996430google scholar: lookup
    53. Olafsdóttir G, Svansson V, Ingvarsson S, Marti E, Torsteinsdóttir S. In vitro analysis of expression vectors for DNA vaccination of horses: the effect of a Kozak sequence.. Acta Vet Scand 2008 Nov 4;50(1):44.
      doi: 10.1186/1751-0147-50-44pubmed: 18983656google scholar: lookup
    54. Liu J, Liu B, Cao Z, Inoue S, Morita K, Tian K, Zhu Q, Gao GF. Characterization and application of monoclonal antibodies specific to West Nile virus envelope protein.. J Virol Methods 2008 Dec;154(1-2):20-6.
      doi: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2008.09.019pubmed: 18948139google scholar: lookup
    55. Kitai Y, Shoda M, Kondo T, Konishi E. Epitope-blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to differentiate west nile virus from Japanese encephalitis virus infections in equine sera.. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2007 Aug;14(8):1024-31.
      doi: 10.1128/CVI.00051-07pubmed: 17596430google scholar: lookup
    Subscribe to our newsletter
    Join 99,344 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.