FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Influenza and other respiratory viruses2018; 12(3); 374-382; doi: 10.1111/irv.12485

Whole-genome sequencing and antigenic analysis of the first equine influenza virus identified in Turkey.

Abstract: In 2013, there was an outbreak of acute respiratory disease in racehorses in Turkey. The clinical signs were consistent with equine influenza (EI). The aim was to confirm the cause of the outbreak and characterise the causal virus. A pan-reactive influenza type A real-time RT-PCR and a rapid antigen detection kit were used for confirmatory diagnosis of equine influenza virus (EIV). Immunological susceptibility to EIV was examined using single radial haemolysis and ELISA. Antigenic characterisation was completed by haemagglutinin inhibition using a panel of specific ferret antisera. Genetic characterisation was achieved by whole-genome sequencing using segment-specific primers with M13 tags. A H3N8 EIV of the Florida clade 2 sublineage (FC2) was confirmed as the causal agent. The index cases were unvaccinated and immunologically susceptible. Phylogenetic analysis of the HA1 and NA genes demonstrated that A/equine/Ankara/1/2013 clustered with the FC2 strains circulating in Europe. Antigenic characterisation confirmed the FC2 classification and demonstrated the absence of significant drift. Whole-genome sequencing indicated that A/equine/Ankara/1/2013 is most closely related to the viruses described as the 179 group based on the substitution I179V in HA1, for example A/equine/East Renfrewshire/2/2011, A/equine/Cambremer/1/2012 and A/equine/Saone et Loire/1/2015. The greatest diversity was observed in the NS1 segment and the polymerase complex. The first recorded outbreak of EI in Turkey was caused by an FC2 virus closely related to viruses circulating in Europe. Antigenic and genetic characterisation gave no indication that the current OIE recommendations for EI vaccine composition require modification.
© 2017 The Authors. Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2018-02-08 PubMed ID: 28940727PubMed Central: PMC5907808DOI: 10.1111/irv.12485Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Research Support
  • Non-U.S. Gov't

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research investigated an outbreak of respiratory disease in racehorses in Turkey in 2013, which was suspected to be equine influenza. They used antigenic and whole-genome sequencing analysis to identify and characterize the causal agent – a H3N8 equine influenza virus from the Florida clade 2 sublineage. There was no indication that the currently recommended vaccines need any adjustment due to this particular outbreak.

Detailed Investigation and Methodologies

  • The team observed an outbreak of acute respiratory disease in racehorses in Turkey in 2013, with symptoms consistent with equine influenza (EI). They set out to definitively identify the cause and characterize the virus responsible.
  • Diagnostic confirmation was achieved using influenza type A real-time RT-PCR and a rapid antigen detection kit, both designed specifically for detecting equine influenza virus (EIV).
  • In order to assess the horses’ susceptibility to EIV, the team used tests such as single radial haemolysis and ELISA.

Findings and Characterization

  • The culprit of the outbreak was confirmed to be a H3N8 EIV of the Florida clade 2 sublineage (FC2). The initial victims were unvaccinated and displayed susceptibility to the virus.
  • Phylogenetic analysis of the virus’s HA1 and NA genes showed that it grouped with the FC2 strains circulating in Europe, identified as A/equine/Ankara/1/2013.
  • This variant, A/equine/Ankara/1/2013, was closely related to virus types referred to as the ‘179 group’, due to their shared substitution I179V in HA1.
  • The most diversity was found in the NS1 segment and the polymerase complex of the virus.

Conclusion and Implications

  • This research marks the first record of an equine influenza outbreak in Turkey, caused by a FC2 virus related to those circulating in Europe.
  • The antigenic and genetic characterizations determined did not indicate that the current OIE recommendations for equine influenza vaccine composition require modification.
  • This implies that the current vaccination methods are likely sufficient in preventing further outbreaks of this strain of equine influenza.

Cite This Article

APA
Gahan J, Garvey M, Gildea S, Gür E, Kagankaya A, Cullinane A. (2018). Whole-genome sequencing and antigenic analysis of the first equine influenza virus identified in Turkey. Influenza Other Respir Viruses, 12(3), 374-382. https://doi.org/10.1111/irv.12485

Publication

Influenza and other respiratory viruses
ISSN: 1750-2659
NlmUniqueID: 101304007
Country: England
Language: English
Volume: 12
Issue: 3
Pages: 374-382

Researcher Affiliations

Gahan, Jacinta
  • Virology Unit, Irish Equine Centre, Naas, Ireland.
Garvey, Marie
  • Virology Unit, Irish Equine Centre, Naas, Ireland.
Gildea, Sarah
  • Virology Unit, Irish Equine Centre, Naas, Ireland.
Gür, Emre
  • Head of Equine Health and Veterinary Services Department, Jockey Club of Turkey, Istanbul, Turkey.
Kagankaya, Anil
  • Department of Surgery, Ankara University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ankara, Turkey.
Cullinane, Ann
  • Virology Unit, Irish Equine Centre, Naas, Ireland.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Antigens, Viral / genetics
  • Disease Outbreaks / veterinary
  • Genetic Variation
  • Horses / virology
  • Influenza A Virus, H3N8 Subtype / genetics
  • Influenza A Virus, H3N8 Subtype / isolation & purification
  • Orthomyxoviridae Infections / diagnosis
  • Orthomyxoviridae Infections / veterinary
  • Orthomyxoviridae Infections / virology
  • Phylogeny
  • Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction
  • Turkey
  • Viral Nonstructural Proteins / genetics
  • Whole Genome Sequencing

References

This article includes 51 references
  1. Cullinane A, Newton JR. Equine influenza--a global perspective.. Vet Microbiol 2013 Nov 29;167(1-2):205-14.
    pubmed: 23680107doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.03.029google scholar: lookup
  2. Cowled B, Ward MP, Hamilton S, Garner G. The equine influenza epidemic in Australia: spatial and temporal descriptive analyses of a large propagating epidemic.. Prev Vet Med 2009 Nov 1;92(1-2):60-70.
    pubmed: 19748691doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2009.08.006google scholar: lookup
  3. Bouvier NM, Palese P. The biology of influenza viruses.. Vaccine 2008 Sep 12;26 Suppl 4(Suppl 4):D49-53.
    pmc: PMC3074182pubmed: 19230160doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.07.039google scholar: lookup
  4. Jagger BW, Wise HM, Kash JC, Walters KA, Wills NM, Xiao YL, Dunfee RL, Schwartzman LM, Ozinsky A, Bell GL, Dalton RM, Lo A, Efstathiou S, Atkins JF, Firth AE, Taubenberger JK, Digard P. An overlapping protein-coding region in influenza A virus segment 3 modulates the host response.. Science 2012 Jul 13;337(6091):199-204.
    pmc: PMC3552242pubmed: 22745253doi: 10.1126/science.1222213google scholar: lookup
  5. Bryant NA, Rash AS, Russell CA, Ross J, Cooke A, Bowman S, MacRae S, Lewis NS, Paillot R, Zanoni R, Meier H, Griffiths LA, Daly JM, Tiwari A, Chambers TM, Newton JR, Elton DM. Antigenic and genetic variations in European and North American equine influenza virus strains (H3N8) isolated from 2006 to 2007.. Vet Microbiol 2009 Jul 2;138(1-2):41-52.
    pubmed: 19346084doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.03.004google scholar: lookup
  6. Lewis NS, Daly JM, Russell CA, Horton DL, Skepner E, Bryant NA, Burke DF, Rash AS, Wood JL, Chambers TM, Fouchier RA, Mumford JA, Elton DM, Smith DJ. Antigenic and genetic evolution of equine influenza A (H3N8) virus from 1968 to 2007.. J Virol 2011 Dec;85(23):12742-9.
    pmc: PMC3209411pubmed: 21937642doi: 10.1128/jvi.05319-11google scholar: lookup
  7. Daly JM, Lai AC, Binns MM, Chambers TM, Barrandeguy M, Mumford JA. Antigenic and genetic evolution of equine H3N8 influenza A viruses.. J Gen Virol 1996 Apr;77 ( Pt 4):661-71.
    pubmed: 8627254doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-77-4-661google scholar: lookup
  8. Lai AC, Chambers TM, Holland RE Jr, Morley PS, Haines DM, Townsend HG, Barrandeguy M. Diverged evolution of recent equine-2 influenza (H3N8) viruses in the Western Hemisphere.. Arch Virol 2001;146(6):1063-74.
    pubmed: 11504416doi: 10.1007/s007050170106google scholar: lookup
  9. King E, Macdonald D. Report of the board of inquiry appointed by the board of the national horseracing authority to conduct enquiry into the causes of the equine influenza which started in the Western cape in early December 2003 and spread to the Eastern Cape and Gauteng.. Aust Equine Vet 2004;23:139‐142.
  10. Yamanaka T, Niwa H, Tsujimura K, Kondo T, Matsumura T. Epidemic of equine influenza among vaccinated racehorses in Japan in 2007.. J Vet Med Sci 2008 Jun;70(6):623-5.
    pubmed: 18628606doi: 10.1292/jvms.70.623google scholar: lookup
  11. Watson J, Daniels P, Kirkland P, Carroll A, Jeggo M. The 2007 outbreak of equine influenza in Australia: lessons learned for international trade in horses.. Rev Sci Tech 2011 Apr;30(1):87-93.
    pubmed: 21809755doi: 10.20506/rst.30.1.2021google scholar: lookup
  12. Gildea S, Fitzpatrick DA, Cullinane A. Epidemiological and virological investigations of equine influenza outbreaks in Ireland (2010-2012).. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2013 Dec;7 Suppl 4(Suppl 4):61-72.
    pmc: PMC5655889pubmed: 24224821doi: 10.1111/irv.12192google scholar: lookup
  13. Back H, Berndtsson LT, Gröndahl G, Ståhl K, Pringle J, Zohari S. The first reported Florida clade 1 virus in the Nordic countries, isolated from a Swedish outbreak of equine influenza in 2011.. Vet Microbiol 2016 Feb 29;184:1-6.
    pubmed: 26854337doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.12.010google scholar: lookup
  14. Qi T, Guo W, Huang W, Dai L, Zhao L, Li H, Li X, Zhang X, Wang Y, Yan Y, He N, Xiang W. Isolation and genetic characterization of H3N8 equine influenza virus from donkeys in China.. Vet Microbiol 2010 Aug 26;144(3-4):455-60.
    pubmed: 20153940doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.01.006google scholar: lookup
  15. Yondon M, Heil GL, Burks JP, Zayat B, Waltzek TB, Jamiyan BO, McKenzie PP, Krueger WS, Friary JA, Gray GC. Isolation and characterization of H3N8 equine influenza A virus associated with the 2011 epizootic in Mongolia.. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2013 Sep;7(5):659-65.
    pmc: PMC3626732pubmed: 23289427doi: 10.1111/irv.12069google scholar: lookup
  16. Virmani N, Bera BC, Singh BK, Shanmugasundaram K, Gulati BR, Barua S, Vaid RK, Gupta AK, Singh RK. Equine influenza outbreak in India (2008-09): virus isolation, sero-epidemiology and phylogenetic analysis of HA gene.. Vet Microbiol 2010 Jul 14;143(2-4):224-37.
    pubmed: 20053509doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.12.007google scholar: lookup
  17. Newton JR, Daly JM, Spencer L, Mumford JA. Description of the outbreak of equine influenza (H3N8) in the United Kingdom in 2003, during which recently vaccinated horses in Newmarket developed respiratory disease.. Vet Rec 2006 Feb 11;158(6):185-92.
    pubmed: 16474051doi: 10.1136/vr.158.6.185google scholar: lookup
  18. Martella V, Elia G, Decaro N, Di Trani L, Lorusso E, Campolo M, Desario C, Parisi A, Cavaliere N, Buonavoglia C. An outbreak of equine influenza virus in vaccinated horses in Italy is due to an H3N8 strain closely related to recent North American representatives of the Florida sub-lineage.. Vet Microbiol 2007 Mar 31;121(1-2):56-63.
    pubmed: 17197135doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2006.11.017google scholar: lookup
  19. Yates P, Mumford JA. Equine influenza vaccine efficacy: the significance of antigenic variation.. Vet Microbiol 2000 May 22;74(1-2):173-7.
    pubmed: 10799789doi: 10.1016/s0378-1135(00)00177-2google scholar: lookup
  20. Cullinane A. Equine influenza and air transport.. Equine Vet Educ 2014;26:456‐457.
  21. Padalino B. Effects of the different transport phases on equine health status, behavior, and welfare: a review.. J Vet Behav Clin Appl Res 2015;10:272‐282.
  22. Heine HG, Trinidad L, Selleck P, Lowther S. Rapid detection of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus by TaqMan reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction.. Avian Dis 2007 Mar;51(1 Suppl):370-2.
    pubmed: 17494586doi: 10.1637/7587-040206r.1google scholar: lookup
  23. Gildea S, Arkins S, Walsh C, Cullinane A. A comparison of antibody responses to commercial equine influenza vaccines following primary vaccination of Thoroughbred weanlings--a randomised blind study.. Vaccine 2011 Nov 15;29(49):9214-23.
    pubmed: 21983355doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.09.101google scholar: lookup
  24. Gildea S, Quinlivan M, Arkins S, Cullinane A. The molecular epidemiology of equine influenza in Ireland from 2007-2010 and its international significance.. Equine Vet J 2012 Jul;44(4):387-92.
    pubmed: 21978127doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2011.00472.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  25. Rash A, Woodward A, Bryant N, McCauley J, Elton D. An efficient genome sequencing method for equine influenza [H3N8] virus reveals a new polymorphism in the PA-X protein.. Virol J 2014 Sep 2;11:159.
    pmc: PMC4161859pubmed: 25183201doi: 10.1186/1743-422x-11-159google scholar: lookup
  26. Larkin MA, Blackshields G, Brown NP, Chenna R, McGettigan PA, McWilliam H, Valentin F, Wallace IM, Wilm A, Lopez R, Thompson JD, Gibson TJ, Higgins DG. Clustal W and Clustal X version 2.0.. Bioinformatics 2007 Nov 1;23(21):2947-8.
    pubmed: 17846036doi: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btm404google scholar: lookup
  27. Hall TA. BioEdit: a user‐friendly sequence alignment editor and analysis program for Windows 95/98/NT.. Nucleic Acids Symp Ser 1999;41:95‐98.
  28. Kumar S, Stecher G, Tamura K. MEGA7: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis Version 7.0 for Bigger Datasets.. Mol Biol Evol 2016 Jul;33(7):1870-4.
    pmc: PMC8210823pubmed: 27004904doi: 10.1093/molbev/msw054google scholar: lookup
  29. Shu Y, McCauley J. GISAID: Global initiative on sharing all influenza data - from vision to reality.. Euro Surveill 2017 Mar 30;22(13).
    pmc: PMC5388101pubmed: 28382917doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2017.22.13.30494google scholar: lookup
  30. Woodward AL, Rash AS, Blinman D, Bowman S, Chambers TM, Daly JM, Damiani A, Joseph S, Lewis N, McCauley JW, Medcalf L, Mumford J, Newton JR, Tiwari A, Bryant NA, Elton DM. Development of a surveillance scheme for equine influenza in the UK and characterisation of viruses isolated in Europe, Dubai and the USA from 2010-2012.. Vet Microbiol 2014 Mar 14;169(3-4):113-27.
    pubmed: 24480583doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.11.039google scholar: lookup
  31. Murcia PR, Wood JL, Holmes EC. Genome-scale evolution and phylodynamics of equine H3N8 influenza A virus.. J Virol 2011 Jun;85(11):5312-22.
    pmc: PMC3094979pubmed: 21430049doi: 10.1128/jvi.02619-10google scholar: lookup
  32. Chen R, Holmes EC. Avian influenza virus exhibits rapid evolutionary dynamics.. Mol Biol Evol 2006 Dec;23(12):2336-41.
    pubmed: 16945980doi: 10.1093/molbev/msl102google scholar: lookup
  33. Smith GJ, Vijaykrishna D, Bahl J, Lycett SJ, Worobey M, Pybus OG, Ma SK, Cheung CL, Raghwani J, Bhatt S, Peiris JS, Guan Y, Rambaut A. Origins and evolutionary genomics of the 2009 swine-origin H1N1 influenza A epidemic.. Nature 2009 Jun 25;459(7250):1122-5.
    pubmed: 19516283doi: 10.1038/nature08182google scholar: lookup
  34. Galvin P, Gildea S, Nelly M, Quinlivan M, Arkins S, Walsh C, Cullinane A. The evaluation of three diagnostic tests for the detection of equine influenza nucleoprotein in nasal swabs.. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2014 May;8(3):376-83.
    pmc: PMC4181487pubmed: 24512560doi: 10.1111/irv.12235google scholar: lookup
  35. Newton JR, Townsend HG, Wood JL, Sinclair R, Hannant D, Mumford JA. Immunity to equine influenza: relationship of vaccine-induced antibody in young Thoroughbred racehorses to protection against field infection with influenza A/equine-2 viruses (H3N8).. Equine Vet J 2000 Jan;32(1):65-74.
    pubmed: 10661388doi: 10.2746/042516400777612116google scholar: lookup
  36. Kinsley R, Scott SD, Daly JM. Controlling equine influenza: Traditional to next generation serological assays.. Vet Microbiol 2016 May 1;187:15-20.
    pubmed: 27066704doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.03.006google scholar: lookup
  37. Cullinane A, Gildea S, Weldon E. Comparison of primary vaccination regimes for equine influenza: working towards an evidence-based regime.. Equine Vet J 2014 Nov;46(6):669-73.
    pubmed: 24237177doi: 10.1111/evj.12214google scholar: lookup
  38. Gildea S, Fitzpatrick DA, Cullinane A. Epidemiological and virological investigations of equine influenza outbreaks in Ireland (2010-2012).. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2013 Dec;7 Suppl 4(Suppl 4):61-72.
    pmc: PMC5655889pubmed: 24224821doi: 10.1111/irv.12192google scholar: lookup
  39. Gildea S, Arkins S, Cullinane A. Management and environmental factors involved in equine influenza outbreaks in Ireland 2007-2010.. Equine Vet J 2011 Sep;43(5):608-17.
    pubmed: 21496094doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00333.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  40. Legrand LJ, Pitel PH, Cullinane AA, Fortier GD, Pronost SL. Genetic evolution of equine influenza strains isolated in France from 2005 to 2010.. Equine Vet J 2015 Mar;47(2):207-11.
    pubmed: 25763436doi: 10.1111/evj.12244google scholar: lookup
  41. Legrand LJ, Pitel PH, Marcillaud-Pitel CJ, Cullinane AA, Couroucé AM, Fortier GD, Freymuth FL, Pronost SL. Surveillance of equine influenza viruses through the RESPE network in France from November 2005 to October 2010.. Equine Vet J 2013 Nov;45(6):776-83.
    pubmed: 23662725doi: 10.1111/evj.12100google scholar: lookup
  42. Powell DG, Watkins KL, Li PH, Shortridge KF. Outbreak of equine influenza among horses in Hong Kong during 1992.. Vet Rec 1995 May 27;136(21):531-6.
    pubmed: 7660556doi: 10.1136/vr.136.21.531google scholar: lookup
  43. Quinlivan M, Zamarin D, García-Sastre A, Cullinane A, Chambers T, Palese P. Attenuation of equine influenza viruses through truncations of the NS1 protein.. J Virol 2005 Jul;79(13):8431-9.
    pmc: PMC1143746pubmed: 15956587doi: 10.1128/jvi.79.13.8431-8439.2005google scholar: lookup
  44. Chambers TM, Quinlivan M, Sturgill T, Cullinane A, Horohov DW, Zamarin D, Arkins S, García-Sastre A, Palese P. Influenza A viruses with truncated NS1 as modified live virus vaccines: pilot studies of safety and efficacy in horses.. Equine Vet J 2009 Jan;41(1):87-92.
    pmc: PMC2878972pubmed: 19301588doi: 10.2746/042516408x371937google scholar: lookup
  45. Barba M, Daly JM. The Influenza NS1 Protein: What Do We Know in Equine Influenza Virus Pathogenesis?. Pathogens 2016 Aug 31;5(3).
    pmc: PMC5039437pubmed: 27589809doi: 10.3390/pathogens5030057google scholar: lookup
  46. Dankar SK, Wang S, Ping J, Forbes NE, Keleta L, Li Y, Brown EG. Influenza A virus NS1 gene mutations F103L and M106I increase replication and virulence.. Virol J 2011 Jan 12;8:13.
    pmc: PMC3032709pubmed: 21226922doi: 10.1186/1743-422x-8-13google scholar: lookup
  47. Kochs G, García-Sastre A, Martínez-Sobrido L. Multiple anti-interferon actions of the influenza A virus NS1 protein.. J Virol 2007 Jul;81(13):7011-21.
    pmc: PMC1933316pubmed: 17442719doi: 10.1128/jvi.02581-06google scholar: lookup
  48. Conenello GM, Zamarin D, Perrone LA, Tumpey T, Palese P. A single mutation in the PB1-F2 of H5N1 (HK/97) and 1918 influenza A viruses contributes to increased virulence.. PLoS Pathog 2007 Oct 5;3(10):1414-21.
    pmc: PMC2000966pubmed: 17922571doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.0030141google scholar: lookup
  49. Chen W, Calvo PA, Malide D, Gibbs J, Schubert U, Bacik I, Basta S, O'Neill R, Schickli J, Palese P, Henklein P, Bennink JR, Yewdell JW. A novel influenza A virus mitochondrial protein that induces cell death.. Nat Med 2001 Dec;7(12):1306-12.
    pubmed: 11726970doi: 10.1038/nm1201-1306google scholar: lookup
  50. Alymova IV, York IA, McCullers JA. Non-avian animal reservoirs present a source of influenza A PB1-F2 proteins with novel virulence-enhancing markers.. PLoS One 2014;9(11):e111603.
    pmc: PMC4219726pubmed: 25368997doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111603google scholar: lookup
  51. Fougerolle S, Legrand L, Lecouturier F, Sailleau C, Paillot R, Hans A, Pronost S. Genetic evolution of equine influenza virus strains (H3N8) isolated in France from 1967 to 2015 and the implications of several potential pathogenic factors.. Virology 2017 May;505:210-217.
    pubmed: 28292661doi: 10.1016/j.virol.2017.02.003google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 6 times.
  1. Ahmed BM, Bayoumi MM, Farrag MA, Elgamal MA, Daly JM, Amer HM. Emergence of equine influenza virus H3Nx Florida clade 2 in Arabian racehorses in Egypt. Virol J 2022 Nov 12;19(1):185.
    doi: 10.1186/s12985-022-01917-9pubmed: 36371185google scholar: lookup
  2. Cullinane A, Gahan J, Walsh C, Nemoto M, Entenfellner J, Olguin-Perglione C, Garvey M, Huang Fu TQ, Venner M, Yamanaka T, Barrandeguy M, Fernandez CJ. Evaluation of Current Equine Influenza Vaccination Protocols Prior to Shipment, Guided by OIE Standards. Vaccines (Basel) 2020 Feb 29;8(1).
    doi: 10.3390/vaccines8010107pubmed: 32121419google scholar: lookup
  3. Gahan J, Garvey M, Asmah Abd Samad R, Cullinane A. Whole Genome Sequencing of the First H3N8 Equine Influenza Virus Identified in Malaysia. Pathogens 2019 May 10;8(2).
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens8020062pubmed: 31083430google scholar: lookup
  4. Miño S, Mojsiejczuk L, Guo W, Zhang H, Qi T, Du C, Zhang X, Wang J, Campos R, Wang X. Equine Influenza Virus in Asia: Phylogeographic Pattern and Molecular Features Reveal Circulation of an Autochthonous Lineage. J Virol 2019 Jul 1;93(13).
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.00116-19pubmed: 31019053google scholar: lookup
  5. Kwaśnik M, Góra IM, Żmudziński JF, Rola J, Polak MP, Rożek W. Genetic Analysis of the M Gene of Equine Influenza Virus Strains Isolated in Poland, in the Context of the Asian-like Group Formation. J Vet Res 2018 Dec;62(4):405-412.
    doi: 10.2478/jvetres-2018-0057pubmed: 30729195google scholar: lookup
  6. Singh RK, Dhama K, Karthik K, Khandia R, Munjal A, Khurana SK, Chakraborty S, Malik YS, Virmani N, Singh R, Tripathi BN, Munir M, van der Kolk JH. A Comprehensive Review on Equine Influenza Virus: Etiology, Epidemiology, Pathobiology, Advances in Developing Diagnostics, Vaccines, and Control Strategies. Front Microbiol 2018;9:1941.
    doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01941pubmed: 30237788google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,850 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.