Reproduction in horses encompasses the biological processes and mechanisms involved in the breeding and development of equine offspring. This includes the study of reproductive anatomy, physiology, and endocrinology in both mares and stallions. Key areas of interest include the estrous cycle, ovulation, conception, gestation, and parturition. Researchers also examine factors influencing fertility, reproductive technologies such as artificial insemination and embryo transfer, and management practices that impact reproductive success. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the physiological, genetic, and environmental aspects of equine reproduction.
Wormstrand A.An immunological gel-diffusion test for the diagnosis of pregnancy in the mare is described. 56 blood samples from 50 different mares were tested. Control tests were made both by the Ashheim-Zondek method and by clinical examination. The accuracy of the immunological method was 96.4 %. No false positive reactions were observed. It is recommended to draw the blood sample at approximately 45 days or more after the last service. The immunological method is simple, cheap and accurate and is recommended as a routine test for the diagnosis of pregnancy in mares.
Rossdale PD.Diagnosis in veterinary medicine is based upon observations of the manner in which the behavioural patterns differ from those exhibited by normal subjects. The newborn foal adapts to an advanced level of activity within a period which is short relative to many other species, and the behavioural patterns which it exhibits during the period of adaptation are comparatively stereotyped. Because the status of any newborn mammal is affected by its previous experience of foetal development and birth, the behavioural patterns of the mother form an important anamnesis in the life of each individual neo...
Hawkes M, Richard A, Oldfield C, Toothaker A, Stokes M, Causey R.Postbreeding bacterial uterine infections inflict major losses on the equine industry. Microcurrents propelled by ciliated cells between the folds of the uterus and cervix have been proposed as a means by which contaminants are expelled. Previous data have shown possible ciliary microcurrents propelling carbon particles, occasionally rotating, through cervical folds. However, adherence to the epithelium may have interfered with movement of carbon in these studies. Therefore, we tested potentially nonadherent substances to reveal ciliary microcurrents on the equine cervix under high magnificati...
Watson ED, Sertich PL, Zanecosky HG.Ovulation has been likened to an inflammatory process. Inflammatory cells accumulate in the ovulating follicle, presumably because of chemotactic factors. Chemotactic activity was measured in fluid aspirated from follicles of estrous mares 0, 12, 24, and 36 hours after ultrasonographic detection of a 35-mm follicle and IV treatment with 2,500 IU of human chorionic gonadotropin. Chemotaxis was assessed by measuring directional migration of equine neutrophils under agarose. Follicular fluid acted as a chemoattractant for neutrophils, but there was no significant difference in chemotactic activit...
Pinzón-Osorio CA, Cortés-Beltrán D, Sanchez-Isaza CA, Jiménez-Robayo LM, Lozano-Márquez H, Zambrano-Varón J, Jiménez-Escobar C.A 4-year-old Colombian Creole mare was presented for diagnosis because the external orifice of her cervix was not detectable when a uterine lavage as therapy for uterine fluid accumulation was attempted. Clinical and ultrasonographic evaluation of the genital tract revealed that ovaries were of normal size and showed structures suggestive of regular ovarian activity. However, granular free-floating fluid material distending the uterus was detected by ultrasound. Upon vaginal examination, the normal external cervical morphology was not evident. The vagina ended in a blind bag with a small papil...
Huber MJ, Roser JF, Riebold TW, Schmotzer WB, Grubb TL, Crisman RO.Seven pregnant mares underwent general anaesthesia, laparotomy, hysterotomy and removal of a 50-day conceptus. Eversion of the uterine horn through the hysterotomy site allowed direct visualisation and electrosurgical removal of endometrial cup tissue from 5 randomly selected mares (Nos 1-5), while cup tissue in 2 mares (Nos 6 and 7) was left intact. Two pregnant mares served as unoperated controls (Nos 8 and 9). Efforts to re-establish pregnancy were initiated 20 days after surgery. Serum samples collected before surgery and during the post-operative period were analysed for concentration of ...
Yeargan MR, Lyons ET, Kania SA, Patton S, Breathnach CC, Horohov DW, Howe DK.In the course of a vaccine experiment on horses, microfilariae were observed in cultures of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from eleven of fifteen study horses. The microfilariae were clearly viable as evidenced by their vigorous movements in the cultures, thus indicating that they had survived the Ficoll gradient purification and the cryopreservation method used for retaining the PBMCs. The microfilariae were identified as Setaria equina, which is a vector-borne filarial nematode that causes a relatively benign infection of equids in which the adult worms reside in the per...
Jasko DJ, Smith K, Little TV, Lein D, Foote RH.A spectrophotometric procedure was developed and evaluated for the objective measurement of equine spermatozoan motility. A 100 mul sample of a sperm suspension, prepared by the removal of seminal plasma, was layered under a column of optically clear medium in a specially designed spectrophotometric cuvette maintained at 37 degrees C. Changes in light transmittance above the interface of the sperm suspension and medium were recorded on chart paper. As sperm cells swam into the medium, a decrease in light transmittance was recorded as a deflection on the chart paper. Chart recordings were analy...
Coutinho da Silva MA, Carnevale EM, Maclellan LJ, Seidel GE, Squires EL.The objective of the study was to compare embryo development rates after transfer of oocytes collected 22 or 33 h after hCG injection into recipients inseminated within the uterus or the oviduct. Oocytes were collected at approximately 22 or 33 h after hCG injections and incubated for approximately 16 or 1.5 h, respectively, before transfer. Intrauterine inseminations using 1 x 10(9) progressively motile sperm were done approximately 12 h before and 2 h after transfer. For intraoviductal inseminations (gamete intrafallopian transfer [GIFT]), semen was centrifuged through a Percoll gradient, an...
Mantovani R, Bailoni L.This study was conducted to estimate the nutritional value of diets given to stallions of different breeds during the reproductive season, and comparing allowances with requirements. The systems compared were the French INRA, the 1989 NRC, and the 2007 NRC. Data on reproductive activity, daily exercise, BW, BCS, feed intake, and feed composition during 4 mo (from March to June) were recorded on 12 stallions used for commercial AI programs. Stallions belonged to 3 different breeds: Italian Haflinger (IH, n=4), Holstein (HOL, n=4), and Italian Heavy Draft horse (IHDH, n=4). Data recorded were us...
Rau J, Tiedemann D, Sielhorst J, Tönissen A, Burger D, Martinsson G, Rohn K, Oldenhof H, Sieme H.Transvaginal ultrasound-guided aspiration (TUA) is a procedure which can be used for the reduction of twins post-fixation in the mare. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of the age of mares and the day of gestation on the outcome of TUA treatment. Methods: In 88 mares, diagnosed pregnant with twins, TUA of the yolk sac or allantoic fluid was performed between day 30 and 62 of gestation. Mares were aged 3-22 years. Ultrasonographic examination for a viable singleton pregnancy was performed by referring veterinarians 5-7 days and 4 weeks after TUA. Based on reported findings, effec...
Watson ED.The ability of equine endometrium to release prostaglandin (PG) F, PGE2, and leukotriene (LT) B4 was studied in vitro, using endometrial tissue from diestrous mares. Because of the high cross-reactivity of the PGF antiserum with PGF1 alpha and with PGF2 alpha, results were quoted as total immunoreactive PGF. Significant concentrations of these arachidonate metabolites were released into tissue culture medium between 1 and 24 hours of incubation. Significantly higher concentrations of PGE, but not of PGE2 or LTB4, were released from endometria of mares with chronic endometritis than from genita...
Plotka ED, Vevea DN, Eagle TC, Tester JR, Siniff DB.Homogeneous Silastic rods containing ethinylestradiol (EE) (1.5 or 4 g), estradiol-17 beta (E) (4 g) or progesterone (P) (6 g) were implanted into feral mares (Equus caballus) between 4- and 10-yr-old. Six treatment groups (greater than or equal to 10 mares/group) of non-pregnant mares received 36 g P and 12 g E (P+E), 36 g P and 8 g EE (P+HEE), 1.5 g EE (LEE), 3 g EE (MEE, 8 g EE (HEE) or control-implanted mares (CI). CI received implants containing no steroid. Two groups of pregnant mares received P+HEE or HEE. Stallions were placed with the mares 15 to 26 mo after implanting. Blood was coll...
Raz T, Carley S, Card C.The objective was to compare the effects of eFSH and deslorelin treatment regimes on ovarian stimulation and embryo production of donor mares in early spring transition. Starting January 30th, mares kept under ambient light were examined by transrectal ultrasonography. When a follicle > or =25 mm was detected, mares were assigned to one of two treatment groups, using a sequential alternating treatment design. In the eFSH group, mares (n=18) were treated twice daily with eFSH (12.5mg im) until they achieved a follicle > or =35 mm; hCG was given 36 h later. In the deslorelin group, mares (n=18) ...
Miragaya MH, Woods GL, Losinno L.The occurrence of uterine and oviductal inflammation, and fertilisation rates, were measured on Day 3 post ovulation in inseminated mares that had either exhibited intrauterine lumenal fluid during a previous dioestrus (Experiment 1) or had acute endometritis induced by intrauterine infusion of 1% glycogen (Experiment 2). Endometritis was assessed by uterine cytology and histology whereas oviductal inflammation was measured histologically. Fertilisation rates were calculated from the percentage of cleaved ova recovered by retrograde flushing of the oviducts. Mares with or without pre-existing ...
Merlo B, Del Prete C, Mari G, Iacono E.The demand for equine in vitro produced embryos has increased over the last decade. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of an extended IVM or a prolonged period before fertilization, including holding time, on equine immature oocyte developmental competence. Oocytes, collected from abattoir-derived ovaries, were divided into 4 groups: H0/24 (n = 165) 0 h holding + standard 24-26 h IVM; H8/36 (n = 160) 8 h holding + 36 h IVM; H20/24 (n = 187) 20 h holding + 24 h IVM; H0/44 (n = 164) 0 h holding + 44 h IVM. Oocytes matured to MII were fertilized by intracytoplasm...
Pope NS, Sargent GF, Wiseman BS, Kesler DJ.Frequent blood samples were collected from 8 pony mares before, during and after labour, parturition and placental expulsion and assayed for progesterone, oestradiol, androstenedione and LH concentrations by radioimmunoassay. A significant (P less than 0.05) decrease in progesterone, oestradiol and in the progesterone:oestradiol ratio was not detected until 0.5 h after foaling. Androstenedione concentrations rose before and peaked at parturition and then declined. A significant (P less than 0.05) rise in LH was detected 0.5 h after parturition. This LH peak was not detected in one mare and she...
Griffin PG, Ginther OJ.Fetal activity and mobility and changes in diameter of the allantoic fluid compartment in the uterine horns were studied in mares between days 69 and 81 of pregnancy by use of transrectal ultrasonography (n = 12) and transcervical videoendoscopy (n = 8). The insertion tube of the videoendoscope was positioned within the allantoic sac to permit viewing of the fetus and entrance to each uterine horn. Each uterine horn was divided ultrasonographically into 3 segments of equal length, and the horns were designated on the basis of side of umbilical attachment (cord vs noncord horns). The diameter o...
Ball BA, Brinsko SP, Thomas PG, Miller PG, Ellington JE.Development of 1- to 2-cell in vivo fertilized equine embryos cultured with or without uterine tubal epithelial cells (UTEC) was studied. One- to 2-cell embryos (n = 26) were collected surgically from the uterine tubes of pony mares 1 day after ovulation. Four- to 8-cell embryos (n = 9) were collected 2 days after ovulation. Presumptive zygotes and 2-cell embryos were cultured with (n = 17) or without (n = 9) UTEC, and all 4- to 8-cell embryos were cocultured with UTEC as positive controls. Uterine tubal epithelial cells were used as cell suspensions within 2 weeks after initiation of cultures...
Withrow JM, Sargent GF, Scheffrahn NS, Kesler DJ.Two pony mares were administered 150 mg of testosterone propionate every other day for 20 days (ten injections) and every ten days there-after. An additional two mares and one stallion were not treated and served as controls. Testosterone propionate was dissolved in absolute ethanol and administered subcutaneously. Sex behavior tests were conducted 26 and 40 days after the first injection. Control mares exhibited very little male sex behavior. Both testosterone propionatetreated mares, however, exhibited mounting, sniffing, flehmen, biting and vocalization behavior in the presence of an estrou...
Britton BA.Cervical and endometrial swabs were taken from 7 mares at various stages of the oestrous cycle. There was no consistent pattern of cell change throughout the cycle. The dominant cell in smears from normal mares was the columnar epithelial cell, especially in smears obtained during oestrus. A ciliated columnar epithelial cell was found much less frequently but appeared more often in smears before oestrus. Endometrial biopsies were also collected from 7 mares at intervals 2-3 weeks over an 8-month period from the beginning of spring to the end of autumn. There was no obvious change in the endome...
Schumacher J, Bratton GR, Williams JW.The pudendal and caudal rectal nerves in four male and five female adult crossbred horses were anesthetized with a local solution. The injection site was located at the foramen for the caudal gluteal artery and vein in the sacrosciatic ligament. Twenty milliliters of local anesthetic solution were injected via a 15-cm, 18-gauge needle. Quantitative data on anesthesia were determined from these injections. Dye was injected with the anesthetic in four additional horses so that accurate placement of the solution could be determined at postmortem examination. Satisfactory anesthesia of the anus, p...
Mercier P, Alves-Branco F, Sapper Mde F, White CR.To evaluate the safety of an orally administered ivermectin and praziquantel paste with regard to variables associated with clinical findings, parturition, lactation, maternal care, and neonate viability in pregnant mares. Methods: 40 pregnant mares. Methods: Mares were randomly allocated into treatment (n = 20) and control (20) groups and administered a placebo or 3 times the therapeutic dosage of ivermectin (0.6 mg/kg) and praziquantel (4.5 mg/kg) at 14-day intervals until parturition. Physical examinations were performed on mares and their foals after parturition (on postpartum days 30, 60,...
White KL, Thomson DL, Wood TC.An indirect immunofluorescence assay was used to detect the presence of H-Y antigen on equine blastocysts. A total of 33 blastocyst stage horse embryos were collected 6 to 7 days post-ovulation by trans-cervical flush and were immediately evaluated for the presence of H-Y antigen. Additionally, 17 embryos, were collected and cultured for 72 h to the expanded blastocyst stage and similarly evaluated. Embryos were placed in medium containing monoclonal antibodies to H-Y antigen followed by incubation in medium containing 1/10 (v/v) fluorescein isothiocyanate conjugated goat anti-mouse IgM Fc spe...
Cohen ND, Carey VJ, Donahue JG, Seahorn JL, Brown SE, Riddle TW.To characterize the temporality of dates of breeding and abortion classified as mare reproductive loss syndrome (MRLS) among mares with abortions during early gestation. Methods: 2,314 mares confirmed pregnant at approximately 28 days after breeding from 36 farms in central Kentucky, including 515 mares that had early-term abortions. Methods: Farm veterinarians and managers were interviewed to obtain data for each mare that was known to be pregnant to determine pregnancy status, breeding date, last date known to be pregnant, and date of abortion. Results: Mares bred prior to April 1, 2001, app...
Ingarden J, Dubiel A, Rauluszkiewicz S.This study investigated the effect of a beta blocker on parturition, fetal membrane retention and subsequent fertility in mares. The animals were divided into an experimental group (150 mares treated during second stage labour with propranolol [50 mg i.v.]) and a control group (180 mares with no treatment). Administration of propranolol was associated with a significant decrease in time of expulsion of fetal membranes, and an increase in both exhibition of foal heat and pregnancy rates at this heat.
Satoh M, Higuchi T, Inoue S, Gotoh T, Murase H, Nambo Y.This is a retrospective study of uterine torsion (UT) in seven mares. In two cases, serum progesterone and estradiol concentrations were also investigated. The mare and foal/fetus survival rate was 57% (4/7). Four cases presented with clockwise torsion, and two cases presented with counterclockwise torsion. The direction was undetermined in one case. The degree of torsion varied. Correction of torsion was performed by ventral midline celiotomy in all cases. In the two cases with measured hormone levels, elevated levels of P were decreased through medication. All mares discharged from the hospi...
Madej A, Kindahl H, Nydahl C, Edqvist LE, Stewart DR.Two mares received PGF-2 alpha twice daily until abortion and 2 mares received a combined treatment with oestradiol benzoate and oxytocin. The mares were about 150 days pregnant. The PG-treated animals aborted after 37 and 61 h, respectively, and the fetuses were expelled in intact fetal membranes. The other 2 mares aborted 13 and 27 h after the first oxytocin injection, respectively, and showed strong uterine contractions and expelled the fetuses in disrupted fetal membranes. Concentrations of 15-ketodihydro-PGF-2 alpha increased both after PG and oxytocin injections and in association with t...
Ginther OJ, Cuervo-Arango J, Beg MA.The role of passage of follicular fluid into the peritoneal cavity during ovulation in the transient disruption in the periovulatory FSH and LH surges was studied in ovulatory mares (n=7) and in mares with blockage of ovulation by treatment with an inhibitor of prostaglandin synthesis (n=8). Mares were pretreated with hCG when the largest follicle was ≥32 mm (Hour 0). Ultrasonic scanning was done at Hours 24 and 30 and every 2h thereafter until ovulation or ultrasonic signs of anovulation. Blood samples were collected at Hours 24, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 48, and 60. Ovulation in the ovulatory gr...
Day WE, Bowen JA, Barhoumi R, Bazer FW, Burghardt RC.This investigation examines the relationship between implantation strategy and gap junction protein expression in uterine endometrium. The pattern of gap junction and connexin protein expression was analyzed in porcine and equine endometrium from cycling and pregnant animals using electron microscopy and immunocytochemistry. Functional analysis of cell-cell communication was also monitored by laser cytometry in primary cultures of endometrial epithelial cells. Gap junctions were detected in endometrial stroma of cycling and pregnant animals, which was correlated with immunoreactive Cx43 within...
Baltsen M, Bøgh IB, Byskov AG.Meiosis activating sterols (MAS) are pre-cholesterol sterols that can be isolated from follicular fluid (FF-MAS) or testes (T-MAS). Meiosis activating sterols trigger the resumption of meiosis in cultured meiotically competent oocytes. In the present work MAS, cholesterol and progesterone were assayed by HPLC in follicular fluids collected from pony mares at fixed days after the last ovulation. Follicles were divided into two groups according to whether they were aspirated before or after Day 17 after the last ovulation. The latter group was further divided according to whether the follicle di...
McCue PM, Troedsson MH, Liu IK, Stabenfeldt GH, Hughes JP, Lasley BL.Thirty-seven seasonally anoestrous mares were divided into treatment and control groups and given 10 micrograms of native GnRH (GnRH) per hour using a peristaltic pump, or 10 micrograms GnRH agonist (GnRHa) twice daily, beginning on either 13 January, 13 February or 14 March. Treatment with GnRH was equally effective in inducing ovulation in January (4/5), February (4/5) and March (3/4). GnRHa treatment was more effective in inducing ovulation in February (4/5) and March (4/4) than in January (2/8). Peak luteinizing hormone (LH) concentrations in mares induced to ovulate with GnRH (7.4 +/- 1.5...
