FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Animals : an open access journal from MDPI2025; 15(2); 191; doi: 10.3390/ani15020191

A Meta-Analysis on Quantitative Sodium, Potassium and Chloride Metabolism in Horses and Ponies.

Abstract: The goal of this meta-analysis was to (i) identify any potential differences in the apparent and true digestibility, renal excretion, and retention between ponies and horses and (ii) examine the impact of work on these parameters. Additionally, the study aimed to (iii) evaluate the effects of water deficiency. This meta-analysis used data from 33 studies and plotted them in diagrams similar to the Lucas test against mineral intake. Three studies involved ponies that were later diagnosed with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID). These were compared with other data to identify quantitative differences, as they may have clinical significance. If any significant difference was observed, the data were not used for the evaluation of the aforementioned goals. Data were compared within certain intake ranges using -tests and ANOVA, followed by Holm-Sidak post hoc tests. Working equines showed significantly higher apparent and true Na digestibility and lower endogenous faecal Na losses compared to non-working ponies and horses, suggesting a rather important role of the gastrointestinal tract in the regulation of Na metabolism in equines. The true K digestibility was also significantly higher in working animals than in non-working ones, but the differences were quantitatively smaller than for Na. Retention plus sweat losses for Na, K and Cl were higher in working animals compared to equines in maintenance. Horses showed higher Na and K retention plus sweat losses compared to ponies. These effects are likely attributable to greater sweat losses in working equines, particularly horses. The apparent and true Cl digestibility was significantly higher in ponies than in horses. A clinical relevance of this observation is rather unlikely, as the digestibility remained very high in both. Water deprivation influenced serum Cl levels and increased renal K excretion, which subsequently led to reduced K retention. Compared to other animal species, no effects on blood K levels or Na metabolism were observed. The ponies diagnosed with PPID exhibited a significantly lower apparent K digestibility compared to healthy animals, which could be an important factor to consider when feeding soaked hay, due to potential electrolyte losses during soaking.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2025-01-13 PubMed ID: 39858191PubMed Central: PMC11758655DOI: 10.3390/ani15020191Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This study is a detailed examination of how horses and ponies metabolize sodium, potassium and chloride. The research also probes into the effects of water deprivation and workload on these parameters. The conclusions could have significant implications for dietary requirements and the health and performance of these animals.

Objective and Methodology

  • The research emulates a meta-analysis, pooling and examining data from 33 studies with the intention of identifying potential differences in the manner horses and ponies metabolize sodium, potassium and chloride.
  • The research also explores the impact physical workload and water deficiency have on these parameters.
  • Three additional studies were conducted on ponies which were later diagnosed with Pituitary Pars Intermedia Dysfunction (PPID). This data was compared with the rest to ascertain if there were any significant quantitative differences that could have clinical relevance.
  • In order to make these comparisons, the researchers have used -tests and ANOVA followed by Holm-Sidak post hoc tests to evaluate the differences within certain intake ranges.

Findings on Apparent and True Digestibility

  • It was discovered that working horses exhibited significantly higher apparent and true sodium digestibility and lower endogenous faecal sodium losses when compared to non-working animals. This connotes that the gastrointestinal tract plays a significant role in the regulation of sodium metabolism in horses.
  • The true potassium digestibility was also notably higher in working animals than in non-working ones.

Retention Plus Sweat Losses for Sodium, Potassium and Chloride

  • The study revealed that the amounts of sodium, potassium and chloride lost through sweating were higher in working horses when compared to ponies. This occurrence is likely due to increased sweat loss in working horses.
  • However, horses showed higher levels of sodium and potassium even after accounting for sweat losses, compared to their pony counterparts.

Apparent and True Chloride Digestibility

  • It was found that ponies had a significantly higher apparent and true chloride digestibility compared to horses. But the researchers believe that this observation may not have clinical relevance as the digestibility remained high for both equines.

Effects of Water Deprivation

  • When water intake was restricted, it led to increased levels of chloride in the serum and amplified renal potassium excretion, thus reducing potassium retention.

Health implications of Findings

  • Interestingly, the study discovered that ponies diagnosed with Pituitary Pars Intermedia Dysfunction exhibited significantly lower apparent potassium digestibility as compared to healthy animals. The implications here could be significant when feeding them soaked hay which may lead to potential electrolyte losses during soaking.

Cite This Article

APA
Maier I, Kienzle E. (2025). A Meta-Analysis on Quantitative Sodium, Potassium and Chloride Metabolism in Horses and Ponies. Animals (Basel), 15(2), 191. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15020191

Publication

Animals : an open access journal from MDPI
ISSN: 2076-2615
NlmUniqueID: 101635614
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 15
Issue: 2
PII: 191

Researcher Affiliations

Maier, Isabelle
  • Animal Nutrition and Dietetics, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schoenleutnerstr. 8, D-85764 Oberschleissheim, Germany.
Kienzle, Ellen
  • Animal Nutrition and Dietetics, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schoenleutnerstr. 8, D-85764 Oberschleissheim, Germany.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

This article includes 106 references
  1. Kirchgeßner M., Stangl G., Schwarz F., Roth F., Südekam K.-H., Eder K.. Tierernährung. Volume 14. DLG-Verlag; Frankfurt, Germany: 2014. p. 659.
  2. von Engelhardt W., Breves G., Diener M., Gäbel G.. Physiologie der Haustiere. Enke Verlag; Stuttgart, Germany: 2015.
  3. Lindner A.. Untersuchungen zum Natriumstoffwechsel des Pferdes bei Marginaler Versorgung und Zusaetzlicher Bewegungsbelastung. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1983.
  4. Jamieson M.J.. Hyponatraemia. Br. Med. J. Clin. Res. Ed. 1985;290:1723.
    doi: 10.1136/bmj.290.6483.1723pmc: PMC1416107pubmed: 3924231google scholar: lookup
  5. Holbrook T., Simmons R., Payton M., MacAllister C.. Effect of repeated oral administration of hypertonic electrolyte solution on equine gastric mucosa. Equine Vet. J. 2005;37:501–504.
    doi: 10.2746/042516405775314880pubmed: 16295925google scholar: lookup
  6. Zeyner A., Romanowski K., Vernunft A., Harris P., Müller A.-M., Wolf C., Kienzle E.. Effects of different oral doses of sodium chloride on the basal acid-base and mineral status of exercising horses fed low amounts of hay. PLoS ONE 2017;12:e0168325.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168325pmc: PMC5207637pubmed: 28045916google scholar: lookup
  7. Rose B.D., Post T.. Clinical Physiology of Acid-Base and Electrolyte Disorders. BD Rose and TW Post, ed. McGraw-Hill; New York, NY, USA: 2001. Introduction to disorders of potassium balance; pp. 822–836.
  8. Coenen M., Vervuert I.. Pferdefütterung. Georg Thieme Verlag; Stuttgart, Germany: 2019.
  9. Tasker J.. Fluid and electrolyte studies in the horse. 3. Intake and output of water, sodium, and potassium in normal horses. Cornell Vet. 1967;57:649–657.
  10. Bochnia M., Pietsch C., Wensch-Dorendorf M., Greef M., Zeyner A.. Effect of hay soaking duration on metabolizable energy, total and prececal digestible crude protein and amino acids, non-starch carbohydrates, macronutrients and trace elements. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2021;101:103452.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2021.103452pubmed: 33993927google scholar: lookup
  11. Glatter M., Bochnia M., Wensch-Dorendorf M., Greef J.M., Zeyner A.. Feed intake parameters of horses fed soaked or steamed hay and hygienic quality of hay stored following treatment. Animals 2021;11:2729.
    doi: 10.3390/ani11092729pmc: PMC8471832pubmed: 34573695google scholar: lookup
  12. Mack S., Dugdale A., Argo C.M., Morgan R., McGowan C.. Impact of water-soaking on the nutrient composition of UK hays. Vet. Rec. 2014;174:452.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.102074pubmed: 24675773google scholar: lookup
  13. Marr C., Bowen M.. Cardiology of the Horse. Elsevier Health Sciences; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2011.
  14. Johnson P.J.. Electrolyte and acid-base disturbances in the horse. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 1995;11:491–514.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30312-7pubmed: 8925422google scholar: lookup
  15. Flaminio M.J.B., Rush B.R.. Fluid and electrolyte balance in endurance horses. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 1998;14:147–158.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30217-1pubmed: 9561693google scholar: lookup
  16. GfE (Gesellschaft für Ernährungsphysiologie). Energie- und Nährstoffbedarf landwirtschaftlicher Nutztiere. Empfehlungen zur Energie- und Nährstoffversorgung der Pferde. Mit Tabellen zur Berechnung der Nährstoffzufuhr. Volume 1. DLG-Verlag; Frankfurt, Germany: 1982. p. 60.
  17. NRC (National Research Council). Nutrient Requirements of Horses. 6th revised ed. The National Academies Press; Washington, DC, USA: 2007. p. 360.
  18. GfE (Gesellschaft für Ernährungsphysiologie). Empfehlungen zur Energie-und Nährstoffversorgung von Pferden. Volume 11. DLG-Verlag; Frankfurt, Germany: 2014. p. 190.
  19. GfE (Gesellschaft für Ernährungsphysiologie). Empfehlungen zur Energie- und Nährstoffversorgung von Pferden. Mit Tabellen zur Berechnung der Nährstoffzufuhr. DLG-Verlag; Frankfurt, Germany: 1994. p. 92.
  20. Burger A.. Literatur-Studie zur faktoriellen Ableitung des Mengenelement-Bedarfs für Erhaltung beim Pferd. Ph.D. Thesis. Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; München, Germany: 2011.
  21. Clauss M., Castell J., Kienzle E., Schramel P., Dierenfeld E., Flach E., Behlert O., Streich W.J., Hummel J., Hatt J.M.. Mineral absorption in the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) as compared with the domestic horse. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2007;91:193–204.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0396.2007.00692.xpubmed: 17516940google scholar: lookup
  22. Lang-Deuerling S.B.. Untersuchungen zu Fütterung und Verdauungsphysiologie an Flachland-und Schabrackentapiren (Tapirus terrestris und Tapirus indicus). Ph.D. Thesis. Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; München, Germany: 2008.
  23. Holdø R.M., Dudley J.P., McDowell L.R.. Geophagy in the African elephant in relation to availability of dietary sodium. J. Mammal. 2002;83:652–664.
    doi: 10.1644/1545-1542(2002)083<0652:GITAEI>2.0.CO;2google scholar: lookup
  24. Maier I., Kienzle E.. A Meta-Analysis on Quantitative Calcium, Phosphorus and Magnesium Metabolism in Horses and Ponies. Animals 2024;14:2765.
    doi: 10.3390/ani14192765pmc: PMC11475699pubmed: 39409714google scholar: lookup
  25. Hipp-Quarton A.. Untersuchungen zur postprandialen Wasser-und Elektrolytretention beim Pferd in Abhängigkeit von der Natrium-und Wasseraufnahme. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1989.
  26. Pérez Noriega H.R.. Untersuchungen über den postprandialen Wasser- und Elektrolythaushalt des Pferdes unter Variation des Wasser- und Futterangebots. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1989.
  27. Page M.J., McKenzie J.E., Bossuyt P.M., Boutron I., Hoffmann T.C., Mulrow C.D., Shamseer L., Tetzlaff J.M., Akl E.A., Brennan S.E.. The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 2021;372:n71.
    doi: 10.1136/bmj.n71pmc: PMC8005924pubmed: 33782057google scholar: lookup
  28. Baker L.A.. The Comparison of Two Forms of Sodium and Potassium and Chloride Versus Sulfur in the Dietary Cation-Anion Balance Equation and Subsequent Effects on Acid-Base Status and Mineral Balance in Sedentary Horses. Oklahoma State University; Stillwater, OK, USA: 1995.
  29. Baker L., Wall D., Topliff D., Freeman D., Teeter R., Breazile J., Wagner D.. Effect of dietary cation-anion balance in mineral balance in anaerobically exercised and sedentary horses. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 1993;13:557–561.
    doi: 10.1016/S0737-0806(06)81525-Xgoogle scholar: lookup
  30. Barsnick R.. Untersuchungen zur Akzeptanz und Verdaulichkeit von Trockenschnitzeln unterschiedlicher Konfektionierung beim Pferd. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 2003.
  31. Berchtold L.. Untersuchungen zum Einfluss der Anionen-Kationen-Bilanz auf den Mineralstoff-und Säure-Basen-Haushalt bei Ponys. Ph.D. Thesis. Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; München, Germany: 2009.
  32. Eilmans I.. Fettverdauung beim Pferd Sowie die Folgen einer Marginalen Fettversorgung. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1991.
  33. Gomda Y.M.. Untersuchungen über die renale, fäkale und kutane Wasser-und Elektrolytausscheidung bei Pferden in Abhängigkeit von Fütterungszeit, Futtermenge sowie Bewegungsleistung. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1988.
  34. Güldenhaupt V.. Verträglichkeit und Verdaulichkeit eines Alleinfutters für Pferde in Kombination mit Stroh. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1979.
  35. Günther C.. Untersuchungen über die Verdaulichkeit und Verträglichkeit von Hafer, Quetschhafer, Gerste und Mais beim Pferd. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1984.
  36. Gürer C.. Untersuchungen zum Kaliumstoffwechsel des Pferdes bei marginaler Versorgung und zusätzlicher Belastung Dissertation TiHo Hannover. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1985.
  37. Hoyt J., Potter G., Greene L., Vogelsang M., Anderson J., Jr.. Electrolyte balance in exercising horses fed a control and a fat-supplemented diet. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 1995;15:429–435.
    doi: 10.1016/S0737-0806(06)81834-4google scholar: lookup
  38. Hoyt J., Potter G., Greene L., Anderson J., Jr.. Mineral balance in resting and exercised miniature horses. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 1995;15:310–314.
    doi: 10.1016/S0737-0806(06)81736-3google scholar: lookup
  39. Krull H.. Untersuchungen über Aufnahme und Verdaulichkeit von Grünfutter beim Pferd. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1984.
  40. Lindemann G.. Untersuchungen über den Einfluss von Lactose-und Stärkezulagen auf die Verdaulichkeit von NH3-aufgeschlossenem Stroh beim Pferd. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1982.
  41. Mueller R.K.. Effect of Dietary Cation-Anion Difference on Acid-Base Status Energy Digestibility and Mineral Balance in Sedentary Horses Fed Varying Levels and Sources of Starch. Oklahoma State University; Stillwater, OK, USA: 1999.
  42. Mundt H.-C.. Untersuchungen über die Verdaulichkeit von Aufgeschlossenem Stroh beim Pferd. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1978.
  43. Neustädter L.-T.. Untersuchungen zu möglichen Auswirkungen einer Unterschiedlichen Mengenelementversorgung auf den Mineralstoffhaushalt von Pferden. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 2015.
  44. O’Connor C., Nielsen B., Woodward A., Spooner H., Ventura B., Turner K.. Mineral balance in horses fed two supplemental silicon sources. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2008;92:173–181.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0396.2007.00724.xpubmed: 18336414google scholar: lookup
  45. Pferdekamp M.. Einfluss steigender Proteinmengen auf den Stoffwechsel des Pferdes. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1978.
  46. Roose K., Hoekstra K., Pagan J., Geor R.. Effect of an Aluminum Supplement on Nutrient Digestibility and Mineral Metabolism in Thoroughbred Horses. Kentucky Equine Research; Versailles, KY, USA: 2001. pp. 364–369.
  47. Schiele K.. Einfluss reduzierter Futterzuteilung zweier Verschiedener Heuqualitäten auf Passagedauer und Verdaulichkeit bei Ponies. Ph.D. Thesis. Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; München, Germany: 2008.
  48. Schmidt M.. Untersuchungen über die Verträglichkeit und Verdaulichkeit eines pelletierten Mischfutters für Pferde in Kombination mit Heu und NH3-aufgeschlossenem Stroh. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1980.
  49. Schryver H., Parker M., Daniluk P., Pagan K., Williams J., Soderholm L., Hintz H.. Salt consumption and the effect of salt on mineral metabolism in horses. Cornell Vet. 1987;77:122–131.
    pubmed: 3568683doi: 10.1017/s1357729800013953google scholar: lookup
  50. Schulze K.. Untersuchungen zur Verdaulichkeit und Energiebewertung von Mischfuttermitteln für Pferde. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1987.
  51. Steinbrenner B.. Einfluss eines NaCl-Supplements vor und während der Bewegung auf den Wasser-und Elektrolythaushalt des Pferdes. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1993.
  52. Stürmer K.. Untersuchungen zum Einfluss der Fütterung auf den Säure-Basen-Haushalt bei Ponys. Ph.D. Thesis. Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich; Ingolstadt, UK: 2005.
  53. Teleb H.. Untersuchungen über den intestinalen Ca-Stoffwechsel beim Pferd nach variierender Ca-Zufuhr und einer Oxalatzulage. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1984.
  54. Verthein B.. Auswirkungen einer Enzymgabe auf die Futterverdaulichkeit beim Pferd. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1981.
  55. Wall D., Topliff D., Freeman D., Wagner D., Breazile J., Stutz W.. Effect of dietary cation-anion balance on urinary mineral excretion in exercised horses. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 1992;12:168–171.
    doi: 10.1016/S0737-0806(06)81475-9google scholar: lookup
  56. von Wedemeyer H.C.. Untersuchungen zum Calcium-, Phosphor-und Natrium-Umsatz des erwachsenen Pferdes. Georg-August-Universität Göttingen; Göttingen, Germany: 1970.
  57. Weidenhaupt K.. Untersuchungen zum Kaliumstoffwechsel des Pferdes. Ph.D. Thesis. Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover; Hannover, Germany: 1977.
  58. Geor R.J., Harris P., Coenen M.. Equine Applied and Clinical Nutrition: Health, Welfare and Performance. Saunders Elsevier; Oxford, UK: 2013. p. 679.
  59. Lucas H.L.. Stochastic elements in biological models; their sources and significance. Stoch. Models Med. Biol. 1964:355–385.
  60. Böswald L., Dobenecker B., Clauss M., Kienzle E.. A comparative meta-analysis on the relationship of faecal calcium and phosphorus excretion in mammals. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2018;102:370–379.
    doi: 10.1111/jpn.12844pubmed: 29178376google scholar: lookup
  61. Mack J., Alexander L., Morris P., Dobenecker B., Kienzle E.. Demonstration of uniformity of calcium absorption in adult dogs and cats. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2015;99:801–809.
    doi: 10.1111/jpn.12294pubmed: 25808498google scholar: lookup
  62. Zeyner A., Romanowski K., Vernunft A., Harris P., Kienzle E.. Scoring of sweat losses in exercised horses—A pilot study. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2014;98:246–250.
    doi: 10.1111/jpn.12073pubmed: 23534876google scholar: lookup
  63. Theelen M.J., Luiken R.E., Wagenaar J.A., Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan M.M., Rossen J.W., Zomer A.L.. The equine faecal microbiota of healthy horses and ponies in the Netherlands: Impact of host and environmental factors. Animals 2021;11:1762.
    doi: 10.3390/ani11061762pmc: PMC8231505pubmed: 34204691google scholar: lookup
  64. Langner K., Blaue D., Schedlbauer C., Starzonek J., Julliand V., Vervuert I.. Changes in the faecal microbiota of horses and ponies during a two-year body weight gain programme. PLoS ONE 2020;15:e0230015.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0230015pmc: PMC7082044pubmed: 32191712google scholar: lookup
  65. Lwin K.-O., Matsui H.. Comparative analysis of the methanogen diversity in horse and pony by using mcrA gene and archaeal 16S rRNA gene clone libraries. Archaea 2014;2014:483574.
    doi: 10.1155/2014/483574pmc: PMC3941164pubmed: 24678264google scholar: lookup
  66. Potter S.J., Bamford N.J., Baskerville C.L., Harris P.A., Bailey S.R.. Comparison of feed digestibility between ponies, standardbreds and Andalusian horses fed three different diets. Vet. Sci. 2021;9:15.
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci9010015pmc: PMC8778529pubmed: 35051099google scholar: lookup
  67. Vermorel M., Vernet J., Martin-Rosset W.. Digestive and energy utilisation of two diets by ponies and horses. Livest. Prod. Sci. 1997;51:13–19.
    doi: 10.1016/S0301-6226(97)00108-5google scholar: lookup
  68. Cí·¯ord D., Pearson R., Archibald R., Muirhead R.. Digestibility and gastro-intestinal transit time of diets containing different proportions of alfalfa and oat straw given to Thoroughbreds, Shetland ponies, Highland ponies and donkeys. Anim. Sci. 1995;61:407–417.
    doi: 10.1017/S1357729800013953google scholar: lookup
  69. Hoffmann M., Steinhöfel O., Fuchs R.. The digestibility of crude nutrients in horses. 2. Comparative studies on the digestive capacity of a thoroughbred horse, pony and wether. Arch. Fur Tierernahr. 1987;37:351–362.
    doi: 10.1080/17450398709425356pubmed: 2841916google scholar: lookup
  70. ROSE R.J., Arnold K.S., Church S., Paris R.. Plasma and sweat electrolyte concentrations in the horse during long distance exercise. Equine Vet. J. 1980;12:19–22.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1980.tb02290.xpubmed: 7363879google scholar: lookup
  71. Snow D., Kerr M., Nimmo M., Abbott E.. Alterations in blood, sweat, urine and muscle composition during prolonged exercise in the horse. Vet. Rec. 1982;110:377–384.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.110.16.377pubmed: 7080430google scholar: lookup
  72. Lucke J., Hall G.. Further studies on the metabolic effects of long distance riding: Golden Horseshoe Ride 1979. Equine Vet. J. 1980;12:189–192.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1980.tb03424.xpubmed: 7439143google scholar: lookup
  73. Lindinger M.I., Waller A.P.. Tracing oral Na+ and K+ in sweat during exercise and recovery in horses. Exp. Physiol. 2021;106:972–982.
    doi: 10.1113/EP089232pubmed: 33550621google scholar: lookup
  74. Lindinger M.I.. Oral electrolyte and water supplementation in horses. Vet. Sci. 2022;9:626.
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci9110626pmc: PMC9696292pubmed: 36356103google scholar: lookup
  75. Waller A.P., Lindinger M.I.. Tracing acid-base variables in exercising horses: Effects of pre-loading oral electrolytes. Animals 2022;13:73.
    doi: 10.3390/ani13010073pmc: PMC9817799pubmed: 36611683google scholar: lookup
  76. McCutcheon L., Geor R., Hare M.J., ECKER G.L., Lindinger M.. Sweating rate and sweat composition during exercise and recovery in ambient heat and humidity. Equine Vet. J. 1995;27:153–157.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1995.tb05022.xpubmed: 8933099google scholar: lookup
  77. Spooner H., Nielsen B., SCHOTT II H., Harris P.. Sweat composition in Arabian horses performing endurance exercise on forage-based, low Na rations. Equine Vet. J. 2010;42:382–386.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00208.xpubmed: 21059034google scholar: lookup
  78. Rucker R.. Allometric scaling, metabolic body size and interspecies comparisons of basal nutritional requirements. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2007;91:148–156.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0396.2007.00681.xpubmed: 17355344google scholar: lookup
  79. Rucker R., Storms D.. Interspecies comparisons of micronutrient requirements: Metabolic vs. absolute body size. J. Nutr. 2002;132:2999–3000.
    doi: 10.1093/jn/131.10.2999pubmed: 12368385google scholar: lookup
  80. NRC (National Research Council). Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats. The National Academies Press; Washington, DC, USA: 2006. p. 424.
  81. Meyer H., Zentek J., Habernoll H., Maskell I.. Digestibility and compatibility of mixed diets and faecal consistency in different breeds of dog. J. Vet. Med. Ser. A. 1999;46:155–166.
    doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0442.1999.00201.xpubmed: 10337231google scholar: lookup
  82. Burmeier H.U.. Auswirkungen des Natrium-und Rohproteingehalts sowie der Proteinqualität im Futter auf die Harnzusammensetzung von gesunden Katzen. Ph.D. Thesis. Freie Universitä Berlin; Berlin, Germany: 2017.
  83. Entringer R., Plumlee M., Conrad J., Cline T., Wolfe S.. Influence of diet on passage rate and apparent digestibility by growing swine. J. Anim. Sci. 1975;40:486–494.
    doi: 10.2527/jas1975.403486xpubmed: 1167855google scholar: lookup
  84. Böswald L.F., Wenderlein J., Siegert W., Straubinger R.K., Kienzle E.. True mineral digestibility in C57Bl/6J mice. PLoS ONE 2023;18:e0290145.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0290145pmc: PMC10431658pubmed: 37585435google scholar: lookup
  85. Böswald L.F., Matzek D., Popper B.. Digestibility of crude nutrients and minerals in C57Bl/6J and CD1 mice fed a pelleted lab rodent diet. Sci. Rep. 2024;14:1791.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-52271-5pmc: PMC10799863pubmed: 38245611google scholar: lookup
  86. Clauss M., Loehlein W., Kienzle E., Wiesner H.. Studies on feed digestibilities in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2003;87:160–173.
    doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0396.2003.00429.xpubmed: 14511142google scholar: lookup
  87. Bie P.. Mechanisms of sodium balance: Total body sodium, surrogate variables, and renal sodium excretion. Am. J. Physiol.-Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2018;315:R945–R962.
    doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.00363.2017pubmed: 30110176google scholar: lookup
  88. Michell A.. The Clinical Biology of Sodium: The Physiology and Pathophysiology of Sodium in Mammals. Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2014.
  89. Selkurt E.E.. Sodium excretion by the mammalian kidney. Physiol. Rev. 1954;34:287–333.
    doi: 10.1152/physrev.1954.34.2.287pubmed: 13155189google scholar: lookup
  90. van Ost S.. Eine Feldstudie zu Energiebedarf und Rationsgestaltung bei Hochleistungsspringpferden. Ph.D. Thesis. Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; München, Germany: 2015.
  91. Schott II H.C., Hinchcliff K.W.. Treatments affecting fluid and electrolyte status during exercise. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 1998;14:175–204.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30219-5pubmed: 9561695google scholar: lookup
  92. Kerr M.G.. Biochemical and Physiological Aspects of Endurance Exercise in the Horse. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Glasgow; Glasgow, UK: 1985.
  93. Clauss M., Lang-Deuerling S., Kienzle E., Medici E.P., Hummel J.. Mineral absorption in tapirs (Tapirus spp.) as compared to the domestic horse. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2009;93:768–776.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0396.2008.00865.xpubmed: 19175463google scholar: lookup
  94. Teshima E., Brunetto M., Vasconcellos R., Gonçalves K., De-Oliveira L., Valério A., Carciofi A.. Nutrient digestibility, but not mineral absorption, is age-dependent in cats. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2010;94:e251–e258.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0396.2009.00964.xpubmed: 20455969google scholar: lookup
  95. Vervuert I., Kienzle E.. Equine Applied and Clinical Nutrition. Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2013. Assessment of nutritional status from analysis of blood and other tissue samples; pp. 425–442.
  96. Nelson R.W., Couto C.G.. Innere Medizin der Kleintiere. Elsevier GmbH; München, Germany: 2010. p. 1564.
  97. Gennari F.J.. Disorders of potassium homeostasis: Hypokalemia and hyperkalemia. Crit. Care Clin. 2002;18:273–288.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0704(01)00009-4pubmed: 12053834google scholar: lookup
  98. Scott J.H., Menouar M.A., Dunn R.J.. Physiology, Aldosterone. StatPearls Publishing; Treasure Island, FL, USA: 2017.
    pubmed: 29261963
  99. Thornton S.N.. Regulation of thirst. Nutr. Today 2013;48:S4–S6.
    doi: 10.1097/NT.0b013e3182977d0fgoogle scholar: lookup
  100. Stockham S.L.. Interpretation of equine serum biochemical profile results. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 1995;11:391–414.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30307-3pubmed: 8925417google scholar: lookup
  101. McGowan T., Pinchbeck G., McGowan C.. Prevalence, risk factors and clinical signs predictive for equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in aged horses. Equine Vet. J. 2013;45:74–79.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2012.00578.xpubmed: 22594955google scholar: lookup
  102. Lumnitz M.S.. Qualitativ-histologische und quantitativ-stereologische Veränderungen der Nebennieren bei Equiden. Ph.D. Thesis. Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; München, Germany: 2017.
  103. Davies D., Foster S., Hopper B., Staudte K., O’hara A., Irwin P.. Hypokalaemic paresis, hypertension, alkalosis and adrenal-dependent hyperadrenocorticism in a dog. Aust. Vet. J. 2008;86:139–146.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2008.00276.xpubmed: 18363988google scholar: lookup
  104. Cayzer J., Jones B.. Canine hyperadrenocorticism. New Zealand Vet. J. 1993;41:53–68.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.1993.35736pubmed: 16031696google scholar: lookup
  105. Bailey M.A., Mullins J.J., Kenyon C.J.. Mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptors stimulate epithelial sodium channel activity in a mouse model of Cushing syndrome. Hypertension 2009;54:890–896.
    doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.134973pubmed: 19635986google scholar: lookup
  106. Zondek H., Leszynsky H.E.. Transient Cushing Syndrome. Br. Med. J. 1956;1:197.
    doi: 10.1136/bmj.1.4960.197pmc: PMC1978796pubmed: 13276672google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,727 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.