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Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association1988; 193(1); 72-75;

Clinical significance of aerobic bacterial flora of the uterus, vagina, vestibule, and clitoral fossa of clinically normal mares.

Abstract: Swab specimens for bacterial culture were obtained from the uterus, vagina, vestibule, and clitoral fossa of 48 mares that had normal reproductive tracts, no history of reproductive problems, and no inflammation on evaluation of endometrial biopsy. The mares were predominantly Thoroughbred and Standardbred. Swab specimens of the vagina were obtained through a sterile speculum; swab specimens of the uterus were obtained by use of a double-guarded, occluded culture instrument. Fifteen (31%) of the uterine swab specimens and 20 (42%) of the vaginal swab specimens yielded growth on aerobic culture; however, only 2 (4%) of the uterine swab specimens and 4 (8%) of the vaginal swab specimens yielded growth of more than 10 colonies. In contrast, 21 (44%) of the vestibular swab specimens and 45 (94%) of the clitoral fossa swab specimens had moderate (greater than 10 colonies in 1 quadrant) to heavy (colonies in 2 or 3 quadrants) growth of organisms on culture. Of organisms considered to be potential pathogens, Streptococcus zooepidemicus and Escherichia coli were found on bacteriologic culture of several clitoral fossa swab specimens and of some vestibular swab specimens. We did not isolate any potential pathogens from uterine or vaginal swab specimens. It appears that 1 to 10 colonies of nonpathogenic organisms could be recovered from the uterus in a substantial number of clinically normal mares even when double-guarded swabbing techniques are used, and we suggest that prebreeding culture requirements be modified to reflect this. Also, our findings indicate that the vulvovaginal fold, rather than the cervix, might be the major barrier to ascending bacterial contamination of the reproductive tract.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Publication Date: 1988-07-01 PubMed ID: 3417532
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  • Journal Article
  • Research Support
  • Non-U.S. Gov't

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This study examined the presence and quantity of bacteria in different areas of the reproductive tract in healthy mares. The findings suggest that small amounts of nonpathogenic bacteria are present in the uterus. Also, higher amounts of bacteria were found in the vestibule and clitoral fossa, including certain pathogenic species like Streptococcus zooepidemicus and Escherichia coli.

Research Methodology and Participants

  • The study involved 48 mares with no prior reproductive issues or abnormalities in their reproductive tracts. Mostly, these mares were Thoroughbreds and Standardbreds.
  • Bacterial swab specimens were collected from four different sites in the reproductive tract, namely the uterus, vagina, vestibule, and clitoral fossa. The latter two areas are part of the external genital tract, while the former are internal.
  • The researchers used a sterile speculum for taking vaginal swabs and a double-guarded, occluded culture instrument to collect uterine swabs. This technique ensured the contamination was kept to a minimum during sample collection.

Results and Findings

  • The results showed bacterial growth from 31% of the uterine samples and 42% of the vaginal samples. However, out of these, only a small percentage showed more than 10 bacterial colonies after culture.
  • Contrastingly, higher bacterial growth was observed in the vestibular (44%) and clitoral fossa (94%) samples. These areas showed moderate to heavy bacterial colony growth in the cultures.
  • The cultures from clitoral fossa and vestibular samples also exhibited potential pathogenic bacteria – Streptococcus zooepidemicus and Escherichia coli. However, none of the uterine or vaginal swab specimens displayed such potential pathogens.

Implications and Recommendations

  • The study’s findings suggest that even in a healthy mare, the uterus tends to harbor between 1 to 10 colonies of nonpathogenic bacteria. This corresponds to the usage of double-guarded swabbing techniques.
  • According to the findings, it is recommended that current prebreeding culture requirements be revised to accommodate the presence of a few nonpathogenic bacterial colonies in healthy mares.
  • The researchers also noted that the vulvovaginal fold could play a crucial role as a primary barrier against bacterial contamination ascending into the reproductive tract. This contention stands in contrast to the widely held view that the cervix acts as the main barrier.

Cite This Article

APA
Hinrichs K, Cummings MR, Sertich PL, Kenney RM. (1988). Clinical significance of aerobic bacterial flora of the uterus, vagina, vestibule, and clitoral fossa of clinically normal mares. J Am Vet Med Assoc, 193(1), 72-75.

Publication

Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association
ISSN: 0003-1488
NlmUniqueID: 7503067
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 193
Issue: 1
Pages: 72-75

Researcher Affiliations

Hinrichs, K
  • Section of Reproductive Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, New Bolton Center, Kennett Square 19348-1692.
Cummings, M R
    Sertich, P L
      Kenney, R M

        MeSH Terms

        • Animals
        • Bacteria, Aerobic / growth & development
        • Bacteria, Aerobic / isolation & purification
        • Clitoris / microbiology
        • Diestrus
        • Estrus
        • Female
        • Genitalia, Female / microbiology
        • Horses / microbiology
        • Uterus / microbiology
        • Vagina / microbiology

        Citations

        This article has been cited 15 times.
        1. Tyrnenopoulou P, Fthenakis GC. Clinical Aspects of Bacterial Distribution and Antibiotic Resistance in the Reproductive System of Equids. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023 Mar 28;12(4).
          doi: 10.3390/antibiotics12040664pubmed: 37107026google scholar: lookup
        2. Ding X, Cui X, Shi J, Cheng X, Yao D, Gao Y, Zhang Y. Construction of a model of endometritis in domestic rabbits using equine-derived pathogens and evaluation of therapeutic effect of sensitive drugs. Front Vet Sci 2023;10:1064522.
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        3. Díaz-Bertrana ML, Deleuze S, Pitti Rios L, Yeste M, Morales Fariña I, Rivera Del Alamo MM. Microbial Prevalence and Antimicrobial Sensitivity in Equine Endometritis in Field Conditions. Animals (Basel) 2021 May 20;11(5).
          doi: 10.3390/ani11051476pubmed: 34065566google scholar: lookup
        4. El-Deeb WM, Fayez M, Elsohaby I, Ghoneim I, Al-Marri T, Kandeel M, ElGioushy M. Isolation and characterization of vaginal Lactobacillus spp. in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius): in vitro evaluation of probiotic potential of selected isolates. PeerJ 2020;8:e8500.
          doi: 10.7717/peerj.8500pubmed: 32071813google scholar: lookup
        5. Ferris RA, McCue PM, Borlee GI, Glapa KE, Martin KH, Mangalea MR, Hennet ML, Wolfe LM, Broeckling CD, Borlee BR. Model of Chronic Equine Endometritis Involving a Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm. Infect Immun 2017 Dec;85(12).
          doi: 10.1128/IAI.00332-17pubmed: 28970274google scholar: lookup
        6. Rasmussen CD, Haugaard MM, Petersen MR, Nielsen JM, Pedersen HG, Bojesen AM. Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus isolates from equine infectious endometritis belong to a distinct genetic group. Vet Res 2013 Apr 18;44(1):26.
          doi: 10.1186/1297-9716-44-26pubmed: 23597033google scholar: lookup
        7. Christoffersen M, Woodward E, Bojesen AM, Jacobsen S, Petersen MR, Troedsson MH, Lehn-Jensen H. Inflammatory responses to induced infectious endometritis in mares resistant or susceptible to persistent endometritis. BMC Vet Res 2012 Mar 29;8:41.
          doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-8-41pubmed: 22458733google scholar: lookup
        8. Clark C, Greenwood S, Boison JO, Chirino-Trejo M, Dowling PM. Bacterial isolates from equine infections in western Canada (1998-2003). Can Vet J 2008 Feb;49(2):153-60.
          pubmed: 18309745
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          doi: 10.1186/1751-0147-44-121pubmed: 15074625google scholar: lookup
        10. Waelchli RO, Corboz L, Doebeli M. Streptomycin-resistant Escherichia coli as a marker of vulvovestibular contamination of endometrial culture swabs in the mare. Can J Vet Res 1992 Oct;56(4):308-12.
          pubmed: 1477800
        11. Vallejo-Soto P, Dorado J, Herrera-García R, Álvarez-Delgado C, Gómez-Laguna J, Santiago Á, Manrique M, González Ariza A, León Jurado JM, Hidalgo M, Ortiz I. Histomorphometric Analysis of the Endometrium of Jennies (Equus asinus) and Mares (Equus caballus) in Estrus: Anatomical Differences and Possible Reproductive Implications. Animals (Basel) 2026 Jan 4;16(1).
          doi: 10.3390/ani16010143pubmed: 41514829google scholar: lookup
        12. Herzog F, Crissman KR, Beckers KF, Zhou G, Liu CC, Sones JL. Lactobacillus Genus Complex Probiotic-Induced Changes on the Equine Clitoral Microbiome. Vet Sci 2025 Mar 3;12(3).
          doi: 10.3390/vetsci12030232pubmed: 40266944google scholar: lookup
        13. Gil-Miranda A, Macnicol J, Orellana-Guerrero D, Samper JC, Gomez DE. Reproductive Tract Microbiota of Mares. Vet Sci 2024 Jul 18;11(7).
          doi: 10.3390/vetsci11070324pubmed: 39058008google scholar: lookup
        14. Gil-Miranda A, Caddey B, Orellana-Guerrero D, Smith H, Samper JC, Gomez DE. Vaginal and Uterine Microbiota of Healthy Maiden Mares during Estrus. Vet Sci 2024 Jul 18;11(7).
          doi: 10.3390/vetsci11070323pubmed: 39058007google scholar: lookup
        15. Silva JA, Castañares M, Mouguelar H, Valenciano JA, Pellegrino MS. Isolation of lactic acid bacteria from the reproductive tract of mares as potentially beneficial strains to prevent equine endometritis. Vet Res Commun 2024 Jun;48(3):1353-1366.
          doi: 10.1007/s11259-024-10295-2pubmed: 38233700google scholar: lookup
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