FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Clin Vaccine Immunol / Comparative efficacies of three commercially available vacci...
Clinical and vaccine immunology : CVI2007; 14(11); 1465-1471; doi: 10.1128/CVI.00249-07

Comparative efficacies of three commercially available vaccines against West Nile Virus (WNV) in a short-duration challenge trial involving an equine WNV encephalitis model.

Abstract: We used a severe challenge model that produces clinical West Nile virus (WNV) disease to test the efficacy of three commercially available equine WNV vaccines in horses. Twenty-four healthy, WNV-seronegative horses of varying ages and genders were placed, in random and blind manner, into three trial groups consisting of eight horses each; two horses in each group received (i) an inactivated WNV vaccine (K-WN), (ii) a modified-live vaccine (CP-WN) containing the WNV prM and E proteins expressed by a canarypox vector, (iii) a live-chimera vaccine (WN-FV) containing WNV prM and E proteins expressed in a YF17D vector, or (iv) a diluent control. Challenge by this model caused grave neurological signs, viremia, moderate to severe histopathologic lesions in the brain and spinal cord, and an outcome of 0% survivorship in all six control horses. In contrast, challenge in horses at between 28 days postvaccination with the chimera vaccine and 56 days postvaccination with the commercial inactivated or modified-live vaccine resulted in 100% survivorship (protection from the onset of WNV encephalitis and viremia). Horses vaccinated with the live-chimera vaccine showed significantly fewer clinical signs than did the control horses (P </= 0.01) and the horses vaccinated with inactivated vaccine (P = 0.035). Mild residual inflammatory lesions were seen in a few of the vaccinated horses.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2007-08-08 PubMed ID: 17687109PubMed Central: PMC2168174DOI: 10.1128/CVI.00249-07Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Comparative Study
  • Journal Article
  • Randomized Controlled Trial
  • Research Support
  • Non-U.S. Gov't

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research study examined the effectiveness of three commercially available vaccines meant to combat West Nile Virus in horses. The results indicated that all three vaccines provided protection, but a significant decrease in clinical symptoms was observed in horses that received the chimera vaccine.

Methodology

  • The researchers conducted a severe challenge model that replicates clinical West Nile virus (WNV) disease to test the efficacy of three vaccines. This model was developed to mimic severe WNV effects in horses.
  • Twenty-four healthy, West Nile virus-seronegative horses of various ages and genders were included in the study. The horses were randomly assigned to one of three groups, each containing eight horses. Each group was then further divided to receive one of three vaccines or a diluent control.
  • The three vaccines administered were inactivated WNV vaccine (K-WN), a modified-live vaccine (CP-WN), and live-chimera vaccine (WN-FV).
  • Each vaccine was evaluated based on its ability to protect horses from WNV, postvaccination response, and possible side effects.

Results

  • In an extreme series of tests, where horses were severely challenged by the model, all six control horses showed grave neurological symptoms, viremia, notable histopathologic lesions in the brain and spinal cord, and no survivors.
  • Conversely, horses that were vaccinated with any of the three commercial vaccines showed a survival rate of 100%. Such high levels of protection were observed between 28 and 56 days post-vaccination.
  • Horses that received the live-chimera vaccine exhibited significantly fewer clinical symptoms compared to those that received the inactivated vaccine and the control group. The decline in symptom occurrence was noteworthy enough to suggest that the live-chimera vaccine may provide superior protection against WNV.
  • Only a few minor residual inflammatory lesions were found in some of the vaccinated horses, indicating that the vaccines’ side effects are infrequent and generally mild.

Conclusions

  • The study highlights the effectiveness of three commercially available equine WNV vaccines in protecting against WNV. All three vaccines demonstrated promising results when administered to WNV-seronegative horses.
  • Specifically, protections from the onset of WNV encephalitis and viremia were remarkable among the vaccinated horses, with a 100% survival rate observed.
  • Among the three vaccines studied, horses vaccinated with the live-chimera vaccine showed significantly fewer clinical signs, indicating that this vaccine might offer better overall protection against WNV.
  • The limited occurrence of mild residual inflammatory lesions in some vaccinated horses indicates that the side effects of all three vaccines tested are generally rare and manageable.

Cite This Article

APA
Seino KK, Long MT, Gibbs EP, Bowen RA, Beachboard SE, Humphrey PP, Dixon MA, Bourgeois MA. (2007). Comparative efficacies of three commercially available vaccines against West Nile Virus (WNV) in a short-duration challenge trial involving an equine WNV encephalitis model. Clin Vaccine Immunol, 14(11), 1465-1471. https://doi.org/10.1128/CVI.00249-07

Publication

Clinical and vaccine immunology : CVI
ISSN: 1556-6811
NlmUniqueID: 101252125
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 14
Issue: 11
Pages: 1465-1471

Researcher Affiliations

Seino, K K
  • College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA. seinok@mail.vetmed.ufl.edu
Long, M T
    Gibbs, E P J
      Bowen, R A
        Beachboard, S E
          Humphrey, P P
            Dixon, M A
              Bourgeois, M A

                MeSH Terms

                • Animals
                • Antibodies, Viral / blood
                • Horse Diseases / immunology
                • Horse Diseases / prevention & control
                • Horse Diseases / virology
                • Horses
                • West Nile Fever / immunology
                • West Nile Fever / prevention & control
                • West Nile Fever / veterinary
                • West Nile Fever / virology
                • West Nile Virus Vaccines / administration & dosage
                • West Nile Virus Vaccines / immunology
                • West Nile virus / immunology
                • West Nile virus / isolation & purification

                References

                This article includes 31 references
                1. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. USDA animal health monitoring and surveillance: equine West Nile virus surveillance data. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. www.aphis.usda.gov/vs/nahss/equine/wnv/. Accessed 7 March 2007.
                2. Beaty, B. J., C. H. Calisher, and R. E. Shope. 1989. Arboviruses, p. 797-856. In N. H. Schmidt and R. W. Emmons, Diagnostic procedures for viral, rickettsial, and chlamydial infections, 6th ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC.
                3. Bowen RA, Gordy P, Mellencamp MW, Baker D. Efficacy of a live attenuated chimeric West Nile virus vaccine in horses against clinical disease following challenge with virulent West Nile virus, abstr. 2096. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2004 Suppl. Proc. 53rd Annu. Meet., Miami Beach, FL.
                4. Bunning ML, Bowen RA, Cropp CB, Sullivan KG, Davis BS, Komar N, Godsey MS, Baker D, Hettler DL, Holmes DA, Biggerstaff BJ, Mitchell CJ. Experimental infection of horses with West Nile virus.. Emerg Infect Dis 2002 Apr;8(4):380-6.
                  pmc: PMC3393377pubmed: 11971771doi: 10.3201/eid0804.010239google scholar: lookup
                5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. West Nile virus: statistics, surveillance, and control. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA. www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/surv&controlCaseCount06_detailed.htm. Accessed 6 March 2007.
                6. Davidson AH, Traub-Dargatz JL, Rodeheaver RM, Ostlund EN, Pedersen DD, Moorhead RG, Stricklin JB, Dewell RD, Roach SD, Long RE, Albers SJ, Callan RJ, Salman MD. Immunologic responses to West Nile virus in vaccinated and clinically affected horses.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2005 Jan 15;226(2):240-5.
                  pubmed: 15706975doi: 10.2460/javma.2005.226.240google scholar: lookup
                7. Diamond MS, Shrestha B, Mehlhop E, Sitati E, Engle M. Innate and adaptive immune responses determine protection against disseminated infection by West Nile encephalitis virus.. Viral Immunol 2003;16(3):259-78.
                  pubmed: 14583143doi: 10.1089/088282403322396082google scholar: lookup
                8. Gardner IA, Wong SJ, Ferraro GL, Balasuriya UB, Hullinger PJ, Wilson WD, Shi PY, MacLachlan NJ. Incidence and effects of West Nile virus infection in vaccinated and unvaccinated horses in California.. Vet Res 2007 Jan-Feb;38(1):109-16.
                  pubmed: 17274156doi: 10.1051/vetres:2006045google scholar: lookup
                9. Grosenbaugh DA, Backus CS, Karaca K, Minke JM, Nordgren RM. The anamnestic serologic response to vaccination with a canarypox virus-vectored recombinant West Nile virus (WNV) vaccine in horses previously vaccinated with an inactivated WNV vaccine.. Vet Ther 2004 Winter;5(4):251-7.
                  pubmed: 15719324
                10. Guirakhoo F, Zhang ZX, Chambers TJ, Delagrave S, Arroyo J, Barrett AD, Monath TP. Immunogenicity, genetic stability, and protective efficacy of a recombinant, chimeric yellow fever-Japanese encephalitis virus (ChimeriVax-JE) as a live, attenuated vaccine candidate against Japanese encephalitis.. Virology 1999 May 10;257(2):363-72.
                  pubmed: 10329547doi: 10.1006/viro.1999.9695google scholar: lookup
                11. Hayes EB, Sejvar JJ, Zaki SR, Lanciotti RS, Bode AV, Campbell GL. Virology, pathology, and clinical manifestations of West Nile virus disease.. Emerg Infect Dis 2005 Aug;11(8):1174-9.
                  pmc: PMC3320472pubmed: 16102303doi: 10.3201/eid1108.050289bgoogle scholar: lookup
                12. Klein RS, Lin E, Zhang B, Luster AD, Tollett J, Samuel MA, Engle M, Diamond MS. Neuronal CXCL10 directs CD8+ T-cell recruitment and control of West Nile virus encephalitis.. J Virol 2005 Sep;79(17):11457-66.
                  pmc: PMC1193600pubmed: 16103196doi: 10.1128/jvi.79.17.11457-11466.2005google scholar: lookup
                13. Kumar P, Uchil PD, Sulochana P, Nirmala G, Chandrashekar R, Haridattatreya M, Satchidanandam V. Screening for T cell-eliciting proteins of Japanese encephalitis virus in a healthy JE-endemic human cohort using recombinant baculovirus-infected insect cell preparations.. Arch Virol 2003 Aug;148(8):1569-91.
                  pubmed: 12898332doi: 10.1007/s00705-003-0118-5google scholar: lookup
                14. Long MT, Gibbs EP, Mellencamp MW, Bowen RA, Seino KK, Zhang S, Beachboard SE, Humphrey PP. Efficacy, duration, and onset of immunogenicity of a West Nile virus vaccine, live Flavivirus chimera, in horses with a clinical disease challenge model.. Equine Vet J 2007 Nov;39(6):491-7.
                  pubmed: 18065305doi: 10.2746/042516407x217416google scholar: lookup
                15. Minke JM, Siger L, Karaca K, Austgen L, Gordy P, Bowen R, Renshaw RW, Loosmore S, Audonnet JC, Nordgren B. Recombinant canarypoxvirus vaccine carrying the prM/E genes of West Nile virus protects horses against a West Nile virus-mosquito challenge.. Arch Virol Suppl 2004;(18):221-30.
                  pubmed: 15119777doi: 10.1007/978-3-7091-0572-6_20google scholar: lookup
                16. Monath TP, Guirakhoo F, Nichols R, Yoksan S, Schrader R, Murphy C, Blum P, Woodward S, McCarthy K, Mathis D, Johnson C, Bedford P. Chimeric live, attenuated vaccine against Japanese encephalitis (ChimeriVax-JE): phase 2 clinical trials for safety and immunogenicity, effect of vaccine dose and schedule, and memory response to challenge with inactivated Japanese encephalitis antigen.. J Infect Dis 2003 Oct 15;188(8):1213-30.
                  pubmed: 14551893doi: 10.1086/378356google scholar: lookup
                17. Monath TP, Levenbook I, Soike K, Zhang ZX, Ratterree M, Draper K, Barrett AD, Nichols R, Weltzin R, Arroyo J, Guirakhoo F. Chimeric yellow fever virus 17D-Japanese encephalitis virus vaccine: dose-response effectiveness and extended safety testing in rhesus monkeys.. J Virol 2000 Feb;74(4):1742-51.
                  pmc: PMC111650pubmed: 10644345doi: 10.1128/jvi.74.4.1742-1751.2000google scholar: lookup
                18. Monath TP, Liu J, Kanesa-Thasan N, Myers GA, Nichols R, Deary A, McCarthy K, Johnson C, Ermak T, Shin S, Arroyo J, Guirakhoo F, Kennedy JS, Ennis FA, Green S, Bedford P. A live, attenuated recombinant West Nile virus vaccine.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006 Apr 25;103(17):6694-9.
                  pmc: PMC1436023pubmed: 16617103doi: 10.1073/pnas.0601932103google scholar: lookup
                19. Ostlund EN, Crom RL, Pedersen DD, Johnson DJ, Williams WO, Schmitt BJ. Equine West Nile encephalitis, United States.. Emerg Infect Dis 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):665-9.
                  pmc: PMC2631754pubmed: 11589171doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010412google scholar: lookup
                20. Porter MB, Long MT, Getman LM, Giguère S, MacKay RJ, Lester GD, Alleman AR, Wamsley HL, Franklin RP, Jacks S, Buergelt CD, Detrisac CJ. West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in horses: 46 cases (2001).. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003 May 1;222(9):1241-7.
                  pubmed: 12725313doi: 10.2460/javma.2003.222.1241google scholar: lookup
                21. Salazar P, Traub-Dargatz JL, Morley PS, Wilmot DD, Steffen DJ, Cunningham WE, Salman MD. Outcome of equids with clinical signs of West Nile virus infection and factors associated with death.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004 Jul 15;225(2):267-74.
                  pubmed: 15323385doi: 10.2460/javma.2004.225.267google scholar: lookup
                22. Savage HM, Ceianu C, Nicolescu G, Karabatsos N, Lanciotti R, Vladimirescu A, Laiv L, Ungureanu A, Romanca C, Tsai TF. Entomologic and avian investigations of an epidemic of West Nile fever in Romania in 1996, with serologic and molecular characterization of a virus isolate from mosquitoes.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1999 Oct;61(4):600-11.
                  pubmed: 10548295doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1999.61.600google scholar: lookup
                23. Schuler LA, Khaitsa ML, Dyer NW, Stoltenow CL. Evaluation of an outbreak of West Nile virus infection in horses: 569 cases (2002).. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004 Oct 1;225(7):1084-9.
                  pubmed: 15515988doi: 10.2460/javma.2004.225.1084google scholar: lookup
                24. Shrestha B, Diamond MS. Role of CD8+ T cells in control of West Nile virus infection.. J Virol 2004 Aug;78(15):8312-21.
                  pmc: PMC446114pubmed: 15254203doi: 10.1128/jvi.78.15.8312-8321.2004google scholar: lookup
                25. Siger L, Bowen R, Karaca K, Murray M, Jagannatha S, Echols B, Nordgren R, Minke JM. Evaluation of the efficacy provided by a Recombinant Canarypox-Vectored Equine West Nile Virus vaccine against an experimental West Nile Virus intrathecal challenge in horses.. Vet Ther 2006 Fall;7(3):249-56.
                  pubmed: 17039448
                26. Siger L, Bowen RA, Karaca K, Murray MJ, Gordy PW, Loosmore SM, Audonnet JC, Nordgren RM, Minke JM. Assessment of the efficacy of a single dose of a recombinant vaccine against West Nile virus in response to natural challenge with West Nile virus-infected mosquitoes in horses.. Am J Vet Res 2004 Nov;65(11):1459-62.
                  pubmed: 15566080doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2004.65.1459google scholar: lookup
                27. Simmons CP, Dong T, Chau NV, Dung NT, Chau TN, Thao le TT, Dung NT, Hien TT, Rowland-Jones S, Farrar J. Early T-cell responses to dengue virus epitopes in Vietnamese adults with secondary dengue virus infections.. J Virol 2005 May;79(9):5665-75.
                  pmc: PMC1082776pubmed: 15827181doi: 10.1128/jvi.79.9.5665-5675.2005google scholar: lookup
                28. Tesh RB, Arroyo J, Travassos Da Rosa AP, Guzman H, Xiao SY, Monath TP. Efficacy of killed virus vaccine, live attenuated chimeric virus vaccine, and passive immunization for prevention of West Nile virus encephalitis in hamster model.. Emerg Infect Dis 2002 Dec;8(12):1392-7.
                  pmc: PMC2738528pubmed: 12498653doi: 10.3201/eid0812.020229google scholar: lookup
                29. Turell MJ, Bunning M, Ludwig GV, Ortman B, Chang J, Speaker T, Spielman A, McLean R, Komar N, Gates R, McNamara T, Creekmore T, Farley L, Mitchell CJ. DNA vaccine for West Nile virus infection in fish crows (Corvus ossifragus).. Emerg Infect Dis 2003 Sep;9(9):1077-81.
                  pmc: PMC3016768pubmed: 14519243doi: 10.3201/eid0909.030025google scholar: lookup
                30. Ward MP, Levy M, Thacker HL, Ash M, Norman SK, Moore GE, Webb PW. Investigation of an outbreak of encephalomyelitis caused by West Nile virus in 136 horses.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004 Jul 1;225(1):84-9.
                  pubmed: 15239478doi: 10.2460/javma.2004.225.84google scholar: lookup
                31. Yang JS, Kim JJ, Hwang D, Choo AY, Dang K, Maguire H, Kudchodkar S, Ramanathan MP, Weiner DB. Induction of potent Th1-type immune responses from a novel DNA vaccine for West Nile virus New York isolate (WNV-NY1999).. J Infect Dis 2001 Oct 1;184(7):809-16.
                  pubmed: 11550123doi: 10.1086/323395google scholar: lookup

                Citations

                This article has been cited 42 times.
                1. Gothe LMR, Ganzenberg S, Ziegler U, Obiegala A, Lohmann KL, Sieg M, Vahlenkamp TW, Groschup MH, Hörügel U, Pfeffer M. Horses as Sentinels for the Circulation of Flaviviruses in Eastern-Central Germany.. Viruses 2023 Apr 30;15(5).
                  doi: 10.3390/v15051108pubmed: 37243194google scholar: lookup
                2. Cheung AM, Yip EZ, Ashbrook AW, Goonawardane N, Quirk C, Rice CM, MacDonald MR, Hoffmann HH. Characterization of Live-Attenuated Powassan Virus Vaccine Candidates Identifies an Efficacious Prime-Boost Strategy for Mitigating Powassan Virus Disease in a Murine Model.. Vaccines (Basel) 2023 Mar 8;11(3).
                  doi: 10.3390/vaccines11030612pubmed: 36992196google scholar: lookup
                3. Cavalleri JV, Korbacska-Kutasi O, Leblond A, Paillot R, Pusterla N, Steinmann E, Tomlinson J. European College of Equine Internal Medicine consensus statement on equine flaviviridae infections in Europe.. J Vet Intern Med 2022 Nov;36(6):1858-1871.
                  doi: 10.1111/jvim.16581pubmed: 36367340google scholar: lookup
                4. Simonin Y. Usutu, West Nile, and Tick-Borne Encephalitis Viruses.. Viruses 2022 Sep 25;14(10).
                  doi: 10.3390/v14102120pubmed: 36298675google scholar: lookup
                5. Constant O, Gil P, Barthelemy J, Bolloré K, Foulongne V, Desmetz C, Leblond A, Desjardins I, Pradier S, Joulié A, Sandoz A, Amaral R, Boisseau M, Rakotoarivony I, Baldet T, Marie A, Frances B, Reboul Salze F, Tinto B, Van de Perre P, Salinas S, Beck C, Lecollinet S, Gutierrez S, Simonin Y. One Health surveillance of West Nile and Usutu viruses: a repeated cross-sectional study exploring seroprevalence and endemicity in Southern France, 2016 to 2020.. Euro Surveill 2022 Jun;27(25).
                  doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.25.2200068pubmed: 35748300google scholar: lookup
                6. Ganzenberg S, Sieg M, Ziegler U, Pfeffer M, Vahlenkamp TW, Hörügel U, Groschup MH, Lohmann KL. Seroprevalence and Risk Factors for Equine West Nile Virus Infections in Eastern Germany, 2020.. Viruses 2022 May 30;14(6).
                  doi: 10.3390/v14061191pubmed: 35746662google scholar: lookup
                7. Di Pol G, Crotta M, Taylor RA. Modelling the temperature suitability for the risk of West Nile Virus establishment in European Culex pipiens populations.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022 Sep;69(5):e1787-e1799.
                  doi: 10.1111/tbed.14513pubmed: 35304820google scholar: lookup
                8. Bergmann F, Trachsel DS, Stoeckle SD, Bernis Sierra J, Lübke S, Groschup MH, Gehlen H, Ziegler U. Seroepidemiological Survey of West Nile Virus Infections in Horses from Berlin/Brandenburg and North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.. Viruses 2022 Jan 25;14(2).
                  doi: 10.3390/v14020243pubmed: 35215837google scholar: lookup
                9. Harrison JJ, Hobson-Peters J, Bielefeldt-Ohmann H, Hall RA. Chimeric Vaccines Based on Novel Insect-Specific Flaviviruses.. Vaccines (Basel) 2021 Oct 22;9(11).
                  doi: 10.3390/vaccines9111230pubmed: 34835160google scholar: lookup
                10. Albayrak H, Sahindokuyucu I, Muftuoglu B, Tamer C, Kadi H, Ozan E, Yilmaz O, Kilic H, Kurucay HN, Coven F, Gumusova S, Yazici Z, Elhag AE. Sentinel serosurveillance of backyard hens proved West Nile virus circulation in the western provinces of Turkey.. Vet Med Sci 2021 Nov;7(6):2348-2352.
                  doi: 10.1002/vms3.589pubmed: 34323396google scholar: lookup
                11. Bertram FM, Thompson PN, Venter M. Epidemiology and Clinical Presentation of West Nile Virus Infection in Horses in South Africa, 2016-2017.. Pathogens 2020 Dec 30;10(1).
                  doi: 10.3390/pathogens10010020pubmed: 33396935google scholar: lookup
                12. Zhang N, Li C, Jiang S, Du L. Recent Advances in the Development of Virus-Like Particle-Based Flavivirus Vaccines.. Vaccines (Basel) 2020 Aug 27;8(3).
                  doi: 10.3390/vaccines8030481pubmed: 32867194google scholar: lookup
                13. Zepeda-Cervantes J, Ramírez-Jarquín JO, Vaca L. Interaction Between Virus-Like Particles (VLPs) and Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRRs) From Dendritic Cells (DCs): Toward Better Engineering of VLPs.. Front Immunol 2020;11:1100.
                  doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01100pubmed: 32582186google scholar: lookup
                14. Schwarz ER, Oliveira LJ, Bonfante F, Pu R, Pozor MA, Maclachlan NJ, Beachboard S, Barr KL, Long MT. Experimental Infection of Mid-Gestation Pregnant Female and Intact Male Sheep with Zika Virus.. Viruses 2020 Mar 7;12(3).
                  doi: 10.3390/v12030291pubmed: 32156037google scholar: lookup
                15. Sotcheff S, Routh A. Understanding Flavivirus Capsid Protein Functions: The Tip of the Iceberg.. Pathogens 2020 Jan 5;9(1).
                  doi: 10.3390/pathogens9010042pubmed: 31948047google scholar: lookup
                16. Byas AD, Ebel GD. Comparative Pathology of West Nile Virus in Humans and Non-Human Animals.. Pathogens 2020 Jan 7;9(1).
                  doi: 10.3390/pathogens9010048pubmed: 31935992google scholar: lookup
                17. Schwarz ER, Pozor MA, Pu R, Barr KL, Beachboard SE, MacLachlan NJ, Prakoso D, Long MT. Experimental Infection of Pregnant Female Sheep with Zika Virus During Early Gestation.. Viruses 2019 Aug 29;11(9).
                  doi: 10.3390/v11090795pubmed: 31470560google scholar: lookup
                18. Prakoso D, Dark MJ, Barbet AF, Salemi M, Barr KL, Liu JJ, Wenzlow N, Waltzek TB, Long MT. Viral Enrichment Methods Affect the Detection but Not Sequence Variation of West Nile Virus in Equine Brain Tissue.. Front Vet Sci 2018;5:318.
                  doi: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00318pubmed: 30619900google scholar: lookup
                19. Lustig Y, Sofer D, Bucris ED, Mendelson E. Surveillance and Diagnosis of West Nile Virus in the Face of Flavivirus Cross-Reactivity.. Front Microbiol 2018;9:2421.
                  doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02421pubmed: 30369916google scholar: lookup
                20. Pisani G, Cristiano K, Pupella S, Liumbruno GM. West Nile Virus in Europe and Safety of Blood Transfusion.. Transfus Med Hemother 2016 May;43(3):158-67.
                  doi: 10.1159/000446219pubmed: 27403087google scholar: lookup
                21. Wang J, Yang J, Ge J, Hua R, Liu R, Li X, Wang X, Shao Y, Sun E, Wu D, Qin C, Wen Z, Bu Z. Newcastle disease virus-vectored West Nile fever vaccine is immunogenic in mammals and poultry.. Virol J 2016 Jun 24;13:109.
                  doi: 10.1186/s12985-016-0568-5pubmed: 27342050google scholar: lookup
                22. Delcambre GH, Liu J, Herrington JM, Vallario K, Long MT. Immunohistochemistry for the detection of neural and inflammatory cells in equine brain tissue.. PeerJ 2016;4:e1601.
                  doi: 10.7717/peerj.1601pubmed: 26855862google scholar: lookup
                23. Suen WW, Uddin MJ, Wang W, Brown V, Adney DR, Broad N, Prow NA, Bowen RA, Hall RA, Bielefeldt-Ohmann H. Experimental West Nile Virus Infection in Rabbits: An Alternative Model for Studying Induction of Disease and Virus Control.. Pathogens 2015 Jul 14;4(3):529-58.
                  doi: 10.3390/pathogens4030529pubmed: 26184326google scholar: lookup
                24. Chaintoutis SC, Diakakis N, Papanastassopoulou M, Banos G, Dovas CI. Evaluation of Cross-Protection of a Lineage 1 West Nile Virus Inactivated Vaccine against Natural Infections from a Virulent Lineage 2 Strain in Horses, under Field Conditions.. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2015 Sep;22(9):1040-9.
                  doi: 10.1128/CVI.00302-15pubmed: 26178384google scholar: lookup
                25. Chen Q. Plant-made vaccines against West Nile virus are potent, safe, and economically feasible.. Biotechnol J 2015 May;10(5):671-80.
                  doi: 10.1002/biot.201400428pubmed: 25676782google scholar: lookup
                26. Montgomery RR, Murray KO. Risk factors for West Nile virus infection and disease in populations and individuals.. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2015 Mar;13(3):317-25.
                  doi: 10.1586/14787210.2015.1007043pubmed: 25637260google scholar: lookup
                27. Bielefeldt-Ohmann H, Prow NA, Wang W, Tan CS, Coyle M, Douma A, Hobson-Peters J, Kidd L, Hall RA, Petrovsky N. Safety and immunogenicity of a delta inulin-adjuvanted inactivated Japanese encephalitis virus vaccine in pregnant mares and foals.. Vet Res 2014 Dec 17;45(1):130.
                  doi: 10.1186/s13567-014-0130-7pubmed: 25516480google scholar: lookup
                28. Ergunay K, Gunay F, Erisoz Kasap O, Oter K, Gargari S, Karaoglu T, Tezcan S, Cabalar M, Yildirim Y, Emekdas G, Alten B, Ozkul A. Serological, molecular and entomological surveillance demonstrates widespread circulation of West Nile virus in Turkey.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014 Jul;8(7):e3028.
                  doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003028pubmed: 25058465google scholar: lookup
                29. Dayan GH, Pugachev K, Bevilacqua J, Lang J, Monath TP. Preclinical and clinical development of a YFV 17 D-based chimeric vaccine against West Nile virus.. Viruses 2013 Dec 9;5(12):3048-70.
                  doi: 10.3390/v5123048pubmed: 24351795google scholar: lookup
                30. Marka A, Diamantidis A, Papa A, Valiakos G, Chaintoutis SC, Doukas D, Tserkezou P, Giannakopoulos A, Papaspyropoulos K, Patsoula E, Badieritakis E, Baka A, Tseroni M, Pervanidou D, Papadopoulos NT, Koliopoulos G, Tontis D, Dovas CI, Billinis C, Tsakris A, Kremastinou J, Hadjichristodoulou C, Vakalis N, Vassalou E, Zarzani S, Zounos A, Komata K, Balatsos G, Beleri S, Mpimpa A, Papavasilopoulos V, Rodis I, Spanakos G, Tegos N, Spyrou V, Dalabiras Z, Birtsas P, Athanasiou L, Papanastassopoulou M, Ioannou C, Athanasiou C, Gerofotis C, Papadopoulou E, Testa T, Tsakalidou O, Rachiotis G, Bitsolas N, Mamouris Z, Moutou K, Sarafidou T, Stamatis K, Sarri K, Tsiodras S, Georgakopoulou T, Detsis M, Mavrouli M, Stavropoulou A, Politi L, Mageira G, Christopoulou V, Diamantopoulou G, Spanakis N, Vrioni G, Piperaki ET, Mitsopoulou K, Kioulos I, Michaelakis A, Stathis I, Tselentis I, Psaroulaki A, Keramarou M, Chochlakis D, Photis Y, Konstantinou M, Manetos P, Tsobanoglou S, Mourelatos S, Antalis V, Pergantas P, Eleftheriou G. West Nile virus state of the art report of MALWEST Project.. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2013 Dec 2;10(12):6534-610.
                  doi: 10.3390/ijerph10126534pubmed: 24317379google scholar: lookup
                31. Pupella S, Pisani G, Cristiano K, Catalano L, Grazzini G. West Nile virus in the transfusion setting with a special focus on Italian preventive measures adopted in 2008-2012 and their impact on blood safety.. Blood Transfus 2013 Oct;11(4):563-74.
                  doi: 10.2450/2013.0077-13pubmed: 24120610google scholar: lookup
                32. Monath TP. Vaccines against diseases transmitted from animals to humans: a one health paradigm.. Vaccine 2013 Nov 4;31(46):5321-38.
                  doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.09.029pubmed: 24060567google scholar: lookup
                33. Angenvoort J, Brault AC, Bowen RA, Groschup MH. West Nile viral infection of equids.. Vet Microbiol 2013 Nov 29;167(1-2):168-80.
                  doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.08.013pubmed: 24035480google scholar: lookup
                34. Parks CL, Picker LJ, King CR. Development of replication-competent viral vectors for HIV vaccine delivery.. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 2013 Sep;8(5):402-11.
                  doi: 10.1097/COH.0b013e328363d389pubmed: 23925000google scholar: lookup
                35. Petrovsky N, Larena M, Siddharthan V, Prow NA, Hall RA, Lobigs M, Morrey J. An inactivated cell culture Japanese encephalitis vaccine (JE-ADVAX) formulated with delta inulin adjuvant provides robust heterologous protection against West Nile encephalitis via cross-protective memory B cells and neutralizing antibody.. J Virol 2013 Sep;87(18):10324-33.
                  doi: 10.1128/JVI.00480-13pubmed: 23864620google scholar: lookup
                36. Pinto AK, Richner JM, Poore EA, Patil PP, Amanna IJ, Slifka MK, Diamond MS. A hydrogen peroxide-inactivated virus vaccine elicits humoral and cellular immunity and protects against lethal West Nile virus infection in aged mice.. J Virol 2013 Feb;87(4):1926-36.
                  doi: 10.1128/JVI.02903-12pubmed: 23221549google scholar: lookup
                37. Hobson-Peters J. Approaches for the development of rapid serological assays for surveillance and diagnosis of infections caused by zoonotic flaviviruses of the Japanese encephalitis virus serocomplex.. J Biomed Biotechnol 2012;2012:379738.
                  doi: 10.1155/2012/379738pubmed: 22570528google scholar: lookup
                38. De Filette M, Ulbert S, Diamond M, Sanders NN. Recent progress in West Nile virus diagnosis and vaccination.. Vet Res 2012 Mar 1;43(1):16.
                  doi: 10.1186/1297-9716-43-16pubmed: 22380523google scholar: lookup
                39. Bourgeois MA, Denslow ND, Seino KS, Barber DS, Long MT. Gene expression analysis in the thalamus and cerebrum of horses experimentally infected with West Nile virus.. PLoS One 2011;6(10):e24371.
                  doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024371pubmed: 21991302google scholar: lookup
                40. Rossi SL, Ross TM, Evans JD. West Nile virus.. Clin Lab Med 2010 Mar;30(1):47-65.
                  doi: 10.1016/j.cll.2009.10.006pubmed: 20513541google scholar: lookup
                41. Koraka P, Martina BE, Osterhaus AD. Bioinformatics in new generation flavivirus vaccines.. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010;2010:864029.
                  doi: 10.1155/2010/864029pubmed: 20467477google scholar: lookup
                42. Redding L, Weiner DB. DNA vaccines in veterinary use.. Expert Rev Vaccines 2009 Sep;8(9):1251-76.
                  doi: 10.1586/erv.09.77pubmed: 19722897google scholar: lookup
                Subscribe to our newsletter
                Join 99,344 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.