FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Equine veterinary journal2025; doi: 10.1111/evj.14552

Computed tomographic myelography of the cranial cervical spine in Warmblood horses with no spinal pathology-Inter- and intravertebral ratios and distribution of contrast columns in neutral and flexed cervical spine.

Abstract: Computed tomographic myelography (CTM) and radiographic myelography (RxM) are diagnostic for extradural spinal cord compression, but knowledge about the contrast distribution in flexion and normal position of nonaffected horses is lacking. Objective: (1) To determine the inter- and intravertebral ratios at C3-C4 of CTM in neutral and flexed positions in Warmbloods. (2) To compare the diameters of the spinal cord and the contrast columns at C3-C4 between neutral and flexed positions in CTM and RxM. (3) To evaluate the variability of measurements. Methods: Terminal in vivo method-comparison study with histological confirmation of absence of spinal pathology. Methods: RxM and CTM were performed in 13 neurologically normal Warmbloods in neutral and flexed cervical spine positions. Inter- and intravertebral ratios, the sagittal diameters of the spinal cord, the dorsal (dcc) and ventral contrast column (vcc) were calculated (in mm) and compared between the cervical spine positions. Results: The flexion angle was 24° in both modalities. Flexion of the cervical spine led to a significant reduction of the diameter of the spinal cord in CTM (sc_inter2: 9.2 ± 1.1 (mean ± standard deviation) and 8.0 ± 1.4, p = 0.02; sc inter 3: 9.2 ± 1.3 and 7.7 ± 1.7, p = 0.007) and of the heights of the contrast columns in both modalities (dcc inter2: RxM: 10.2 ± 1.9 and 8.5 ± 2.1, p = 0.005; CTM: 8.8 ± 1.4 and 7.2 ± 2.0, p = 0.004; vcc inter3: RxM: 2.7 ± 1.3 and 0.9 ± 0.7, p < 0.001; CTM: 2.2 ± 1.2 and 0.0 ± 0.1, p < 0.001) at intervertebral locations. Conclusions: Small group size, no calibration of radiographs. Conclusions: Flexion of the cervical spine decreased the diameter of the spinal cord and the dorsal and ventral myelographic contrast columns in Warmbloods with no spinal pathology. Unassigned: A mielografia por tomografia computadorizada (TCM) e a mielografia radiográfica (RxM) são utilizadas para o diagnóstico de compressão extramedular da medula espinhal. Contudo, ainda há escassez de informações sobre a distribuição do contraste nas posições em flexão e neutra da coluna cervical em cavalos sem alterações patológicas. Objective: (1) Determinar os índices intervertebrais e intravertebrais em C3–C4 obtidos por TCM nas posições neutra e fletida em cavalos Warmblood. (2) Comparar os diâmetros da medula espinhal e das colunas de contraste em C3–C4 entre as posições neutra e fletida na TCM e na RxM. (3) Avaliar a variabilidade das medidas. Unassigned: Estudo terminal in vivo de comparação de métodos, com confirmação histológica da ausência de lesão patologia espinhal. MÉTODOS: Foram realizadas RxM e TCM em 13 cavalos Warmblood neurologicamente normais nas posições neutra e fletida da coluna cervical. Os índices intervertebrais e intravertebrais, os diâmetros sagitais da medula espinhal, a coluna de contraste dorsal (ccd) e a coluna de contraste ventral (ccv) foram calculados em milímetros e comparados entre as posições cervicais. Results: O ângulo de flexão foi de 24° em ambas as modalidades. A flexão da coluna cervical resultou em uma redução significativa do diâmetro da medula espinhal na TCM (em C3–C4: 9,2 ± 1,1 (média ± desvio padrão) e 8,0 ± 1,4, p = 0,02; em C4–C5: 9,2 ± 1,3 e 7,7 ± 1,7, p = 0,007) e das alturas das colunas de contraste em ambas as modalidades (ccd_C3–C4: RxM: 10,2 ± 1,9 e 8,5 ± 2,1, p = 0,005; TCM: 8,8 ± 1,4 e 7,2 ± 2,0, p = 0,004; ccv_C4–C5: RxM: 2,7 ± 1,3 e 0,9 ± 0,7, p < 0,001; TCM: 2,2 ± 1,2 e 0,0 ± 0,1, p < 0,001) nos espaços intervertebrais. PRINCIPAIS LIMITAÇÕES: Pequeno tamanho amostral, ausência de calibração das radiografias. CONCLUSÕES: A flexão da coluna cervical diminuiu o diâmetro da medula espinhal e das colunas de contraste dorsal e ventral na mielografia de cavalos Warmblood sem alterações patológicas. PALAVRAS‐CHAVE: mielopatia estenótica cervical, ataxia, cavalo, tomografia computadorizada, coluna cervical, índices intervertebrais e intravertebrais.
© 2025 The Author(s). Equine Veterinary Journal published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of EVJ Ltd.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2025-06-24 PubMed ID: 40551666DOI: 10.1111/evj.14552Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This study investigates how flexing the cervical spine can affect spinal cord diameters in Warmblood horses without spinal pathology. It uses computed tomographic myelography and radiographic myelography to measure changes in the spinal cord and contrast columns at specific vertebral positions when the spine is in neutral and flexed positions.

Introduction

  • The scientific paper primarily focuses on the use of computed tomographic myelography (CTM) and radiographic myelography (RxM) as diagnostic tools for extradural spinal cord compression.
  • The research aims to enhance the knowledge regarding contrast distribution in the case of flexion and the normal position in horses who do not have any spinal pathology.

Objectives

  • The primary objectives of this research were to ascertain the inter- and intravertebral ratios at C3-C4 of CTM in neutral and flexed positions in Warmblood horses.
  • The researchers wanted to compare the diameters of the spinal cord and the contrast columns at C3-C4 in CTM and RxM between C3-C4 both in a neutral and flexed position.
  • In addition, the study also aimed to assess the variability in these measurements.

Methodology

  • A terminal in vivo method-comparison study was conducted with histological confirmation of the absence of spinal pathology.
  • The RxM and CTM experiments were carried out on 13 neurologically normal Warmblood horses in both the neutral and flexed positions of the cervical spine.
  • The measurements of inter- and intravertebral ratios, and the sagittal diameters of the spinal cord along with the dorsal and ventral contrast column were calculated in millimeters for both the cervical spine positions.

Results

  • A flexion angle of 24º was documented in both the methods.
  • When the cervical spine was flexed, it resulted in a significant decrease in the diameter of the spinal cord in CTM and the heights of the contrast columns in both RxM and CTM at intervertebral spaces.

Conclusion

  • Despite a small group size and no calibration, the study concluded that flexion of the cervical spine resulted in the lowering of the diameter of the spinal cord as well as the dorsal and ventral myelographic contrast columns in Warmblood horses without any spinal pathology.

Cite This Article

APA
Hellige M, Schröder C, Seehusen F, Cavalleri JM, Rohn K, Stadler P, Geburek F. (2025). Computed tomographic myelography of the cranial cervical spine in Warmblood horses with no spinal pathology-Inter- and intravertebral ratios and distribution of contrast columns in neutral and flexed cervical spine. Equine Vet J. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.14552

Publication

Equine veterinary journal
ISSN: 2042-3306
NlmUniqueID: 0173320
Country: United States
Language: English

Researcher Affiliations

Hellige, Maren
  • Clinic for Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Germany.
Schröder, Caroline
  • Clinic for Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Germany.
Seehusen, Frauke
  • Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Germany.
Cavalleri, Jessika-M
  • Clinic for Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Germany.
Rohn, Karl
  • Institute for Biometry, Epidemiology and Information Processing, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Germany.
Stadler, Peter
  • Clinic for Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Germany.
Geburek, Florian
  • Clinic for Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Germany.

Grant Funding

  • Clinic for Horses of the University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover

References

This article includes 35 references
  1. Hahn CN, Handel I, Green SL, Bronsvoort MB, Mayhew IG. Assessment of the utility of using intra‐ and intervertebral minimum sagittal diameter ratios in the diagnosis of cervical vertebral malformation in horses. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2008;49(1):1–6.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2007.00308.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  2. Scrivani PV, Levine JM, Holmes NL, Furr M, Divers TJ, Cohen ND. Observer agreement study of cervical–vertebral ratios in horses. Equine Vet J 2011;43(4):399–403.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00300.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  3. Hughes KJ, Laidlaw EH, Reed SM, Keen J, Abbott JB, Trevail T. Repeatability and intra‐ and inter‐observer agreement of cervical vertebral sagittal diameter ratios in horses with neurological disease. J Vet Intern Med 2014;28(6):1860–1870.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.12431google scholar: lookup
  4. Papageorges M, Gavin PR, Sande RD, Barbee DD, Grant BD. Radiographic and myelographic examination of the cervical vertebral column in 306 ataxic horses. Vet Radiol 1987;28(2):53–59.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.1987.tb01725.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  5. Maclean AA, Jeffcott LB, Lavelle RB, Friend SCE. Use of iohexol for myelography in the horse. Equine Vet J 1988;20(4):286–290.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1988.tb01525.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  6. Nyland TG, Blythe LL, Pool RR, Helphrey MG, O'Brien TR. Metrizamide myelography in the horse: clinical, radiographic, and pathologic changes. Am J Vet Res 1980;41(2):204–211.
  7. Conrad RL. Metrizamide myelography of the equine cervical spine: 14 case histories. Vet Radiol 1984;25(2):73–77.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.1984.tb01913.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  8. Estell K, Spriet M, Phillips KL, Aleman M, Finno CJ. Current dorsal myelographic column and dural diameter reduction rules do not apply at the cervicothoracic junction in horses. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2018;59(6):662–666.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12662google scholar: lookup
  9. Mayhew IG, deLahunta A, Whitlock RH, Krook L, Tasker JB. Spinal cord disease in the horse. Cornell Vet 1978;68(Suppl 6):1–207.
  10. Biervliet J, Scrivani PV, Divers TJ, Erb HN, Lahunta A, Nixon A. Evaluation of decision criteria for detection of spinal cord compression based on cervical myelography in horses: 38 cases (1981–2001). Equine Vet J 2004;36(1):14–20.
    doi: 10.2746/0425164044864642google scholar: lookup
  11. Kristoffersen M, Puchalski S, Skog S, Lindegaard C. Cervical computed tomography (CT) and CT myelography in live horses: 16 cases. Equine Vet J 2014;46(S47):11.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12323_23google scholar: lookup
  12. Lindgren CM, Wright L, Kristoffersen M, Puchalski SM. Computed tomography and myelography of the equine cervical spine: 180 cases (2013–2018). Equine Vet Educ 2021;33(9):475–483.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.13350google scholar: lookup
  13. Gough SL, Anderson JDC, Dixon JJ. Computed tomographic cervical myelography in horses: technique and findings in 51 clinical cases. J Vet Intern Med 2020;34(5):2142–2151.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.15848google scholar: lookup
  14. Moore B, Holbrook TC, Stefanacci JD, Reed SM, Tate LP, Menard MC. Contrast‐enhanced computed tomography and myelography in six horses with cervical stenotic myelopathy. Equine Vet J 1992;24(3):197–202.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1992.tb02814.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  15. Garcia EB, Biller DS, Beard L, Bawa B, Nuth E, Goravanahally M. Computed tomographic myelography of a foal with discospondylitis and extradural spinal cord compression due to a vertebral abscess. Equine Vet Educ 2015;27(2):75–80.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12265google scholar: lookup
  16. Rovel T, Zimmerman M, Duchateau L, Adriaensen E, Mariën T, Saunders JH. Computed tomographic myelography for assessment of the cervical spinal cord in ataxic warmblood horses: 26 cases (2015–2017). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2021;259(10):1188–1195.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.20.11.0614google scholar: lookup
  17. Levine JM, Adam E, MacKay RJ, Walker MA, Frederick JD, Cohen ND. Confirmed and presumptive cervical vertebral compressive myelopathy in older horses: a retrospective study (1992–2004). J Vet Intern Med 2007;21(4):812–819.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2007.tb03026.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  18. Levine JM, Ngheim PP, Levine GJ, Cohen ND. Associations of sex, breed, and age with cervical vertebral compressive myelopathy in horses: 811 cases (1974–2007). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2008;233(9):1453–1458.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.233.9.1453google scholar: lookup
  19. Levine JM, Scrivani PV, Divers TJ, Furr M, Mayhew IJ, Reed S. Multicenter case–control study of signalment, diagnostic features, and outcome associated with cervical vertebral malformation–malarticulation in horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2010;237(7):812–822.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.237.7.812google scholar: lookup
  20. Furr M, Reed S. Equine neurology. 1st ed. Iowa: Blackwell Publishing Professional Ltd; 2007. p. 65–76.
    doi: 10.1002/9780470376461google scholar: lookup
  21. Mayhew IG. Collection of cerebrospinal fluid from the horse. Cornell Vet 1975;65(4):500–511.
  22. Shrout PE, Fleiss JL. Intraclass correlations: uses in assessing rater reliability. Psychol Bull 1979;86(2):420–428.
    doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.420google scholar: lookup
  23. Grenacher PA, Schwarzwald CC. Assessment of left ventricular size and function in horses using anatomical M‐mode echocardiography. J Vet Cardiol 2010;12(2):111–121.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jvc.2010.01.002google scholar: lookup
  24. Rantanen NW, Gavin PR, Barbee DD, Sande RD. Ataxia and paresis in horses. Part II. Radiographic and myelographic examination of the cervical vertebral column. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 1981;3(4):161–171.
  25. Butler JA, Colles CM, Dyson SJ, Kold SE, Poulos PW. Clinical radiology of the horse. 4th ed. Iowa: Blackwell Publishing Professional Ltd; 2018.
    doi: 10.1002/9780470690390google scholar: lookup
  26. Sleutjens J, Voorhout G, van der Kolk JH, Wijnberg I, Back W. The effect of ex vivo flexion and extension on intervertebral foramina dimensions in the equine cervical spine. Equine Vet J 2010;42(s38):425–430.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00226.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  27. Dennison S, Drees R, Rylander H, Yandell BS, Milovancev M, Pettigrew R. Evaluation of different computed tomography techniques and myelography for the diagnosis of acute canine myelopathy: diagnosing acute canine myelopathy. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2010;51(3):254–258.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2010.01667.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  28. Claridge HAH, Piercy RJ, Parry A, Weller R. The 3D anatomy of the cervical articular process joints in the horse and their topographical relationship to the spinal cord. Equine Vet J 2010;42(8):726–731.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00114.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  29. Sleutjens J, Cooley AJ, Sampson SN, Wijnberg ID, Back W, van der Kolk JH. The equine cervical spine: comparing MRI and contrast‐enhanced CT images with anatomic slices in the sagittal, dorsal, and transverse plane. Vet Q 2014;34(2):74–84.
    doi: 10.1080/01652176.2014.951129google scholar: lookup
  30. Schulze N, Ehrle A, Weller R, Fritsch G, Gernhardt J, Ben Romdhane R. Computed tomographic evaluation of adjacent segment motion after ex vivo fusion of equine third and fourth cervical vertebrae. Vet Comp Orthopaed 2019;33:1–8.
    doi: 10.1055/s-0039-1693665google scholar: lookup
  31. Biervliet JV. An evidence‐based approach to clinical questions in the practice of equine neurology. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2007;23(2):317–328.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2007.03.009google scholar: lookup
  32. Mitchell CW, Nykamp SG, Foster R, Cruz R, Montieth G. The use of magnetic resonance imaging in evaluating horses with spinal ataxia. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2012;53(6):613–620.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2012.01938.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  33. Olsen E, Dunkel B, Barker WHJ, Finding EJT, Perkins JD, Witte TH. Rater agreement on gait assessment during neurological examination of horses. J Vet Intern Med 2014;28:630–638.
  34. Ralston WH, Robbins MS, Coveney J, Blair M. Acute and subacute toxicity studies of ioversol in experimental animals. Invest Radiol 1989;24(Suppl 1):S2–S9.
    doi: 10.1097/00004424-198906001-00002google scholar: lookup
  35. Sarmento LVC, Tudury EA, Caldas ELC, Magalhães PK d L, Albuquerque ÉRC. Myelography in healthy dogs using ioversol 240 mg I/ml contrast medium: clinical and radiological results. Braz J Vet Res Anim Sci 2001;38(2):97–100.
    doi: 10.1590/s1413-95962001000200010google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,780 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.