FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Equine veterinary journal2024; 57(5); 1265-1278; doi: 10.1111/evj.14422

Computed tomography of the equine caudal spine and pelvis: Technique, image quality and anatomical variation in 56 clinical cases (2018-2023).

Abstract: Cross-sectional imaging improves the diagnostic accuracy of complex anatomical regions. Computed tomography (CT) of the pelvis and caudal spine in a large group of live horses and ponies has not been previously reported. Objective: To describe the procedure for acquiring CT images of horses' caudal spine/pelvis under general anaesthesia (GA) and to detail the image quality, artefacts and anatomical variations in this region. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Horses with CT of the caudal spine/pelvis were included. Horses under 6 months and CT examination performed post-mortem were excluded. Protocols, image quality, region of interest, anatomical features and morbidities were analysed. Results: Fifty-six horses (8 months to 20 years, 85-680 kg) met the inclusion criteria. GA ranged from 10 to 60 min (mean: 30, median: 32). There were no adverse events recorded in any of the horses associated with the procedure. Images of all horses were considered of diagnostic quality. Anatomical variations were common and included the location of diverging (widest) interspinous space, the presence of spina bifida in the lumbar and sacral spine, the shape of the last lumbar vertebra and the location of intertransverse joints in terms of where they were present and the degree of fusion/modelling. Conclusions: Not all horses underwent CT examination of the same regions, the upper size limit of horses is unknown and will vary depending on bore size and table infrastructure. Image noise, particularly in large horses and beam hardening artefacts from hardware and pelvis degraded image quality. Images were of insufficient quality in large horses for soft tissue interpretation. Conclusions: CT of the caudal spine and pelvis in live horses with wide-bore CT machines and modified patient infrastructure was safe and produced diagnostic images. Unassigned: Die Querschnittsbildgebung verbessert die diagnostische Genauigkeit von komplexen anatomischen Regionen. Die Computertomographie (CT) des Beckens und der kaudalen Wirbelsäule bei einer groβen Gruppe lebender Pferde und Ponys wurde bisher noch nicht berichtet. Unassigned: Beschreibung des Verfahrens zur Aufnahme von CT‐Bildern der kaudalen Wirbelsäule/des Beckens von Pferden unter Vollnarkose und detaillierte Beschreibung der Bildqualität, Artefakte und anatomischen Variationen in diesen Regionen. Methods: Retrospektive Fallserie. Methods: Pferde mit CT der kaudalen Wirbelsäule/des Beckens wurden in die Studie aufgenommen. Pferde, die jünger als 6 Monate waren und bei denen die CT‐Untersuchung postmortal durchgeführt wurde, wurden ausgeschlossen. Analysiert wurden Protokolle, Bildqualität, Interessengebiet, anatomische Merkmale und Morbiditäten. Unassigned: Sechsundfünfzig Pferde (8 Monate bis 20 Jahre, 85–680 kg) erfüllten die Einschlusskriterien. Die Dauer der Vollnarkose (GA) lag zwischen 10 und 60 Minuten (Mittelwert 30, Median 32). Bei keinem der Pferde wurden unerwünschte Ereignisse im Zusammenhang mit dem Verfahren festgestellt. Die Bilder aller Pferde waren von diagnostischer Qualität. Anatomische Abweichungen waren häufig und betrafen u.a.: die Lage des divergierenden (breitesten) Zwischenwirbelraums, das Vorhandensein einer Spina bifida in der Lenden‐ und Sakralwirbelsäule, die Form des letzten Lendenwirbels und die Lage der Intertransversalgelenke in Bezug auf deren Vorhandensein und den Grad der Fusion/Modellierung. HAUPTEINSCHRÄNKUNGEN: Nicht bei allen Pferden wurden die gleichen Regionen im CT untersucht, die Obergrenze für die Gröβe der Pferde ist unbekannt und hängt von dem Gantrydurchmessers und der Tischkonstruktion ab. Bildrauschen, insbesondere bei groβen Pferden, und Strahlenhärtungsartefakte von Hardware und Becken beeinträchtigten die Bildqualität für die Interpretation von Weichteilen. Unassigned: Die Computertomographie der kaudalen Wirbelsäule und des Beckens bei lebenden Pferden mit Wide‐Bore‐CT‐Geräten und modifizierter Patienteninfrastuktur war sicher und lieferte diagnostische Bilder.
© 2024 The Author(s). Equine Veterinary Journal published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of EVJ Ltd.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2024-10-10 PubMed ID: 39390752PubMed Central: PMC12326906DOI: 10.1111/evj.14422Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This research article investigates the use of computed tomography (CT) for studying the caudal spine and pelvis of horses. The study records the procedure for acquiring CT images under general anesthesia and provides detailed analysis on image quality, artifacts, and anatomical variations.

Research Objective and Methods

  • The researchers aimed to evaluate the use of computed tomography for diagnosing conditions in the horses’ caudal spine and pelvis region. Prior to this study, CT scans of the pelvis and caudal spine had not been reported in live horses and ponies.
  • The research involved collecting retrospective case series, where horses that had undergone CT of the caudal spine or pelvis were included. Young horses (under 6 months) and cases where CT examination was done post-mortem were excluded.
  • In addition to acquiring CT images, they also studied the protocols followed, quality of the acquired images, region of interest, anatomical features, and diseases present.

Key Findings and Results

  • The study analysed data from fifty-six horses and found no adverse events that were associated with the procedure
  • All images were considered of a diagnostic quality, confirming the usefulness of CT scans in diagnostic processes in horses
  • Common anatomical variations were observed, such as the location of the widest interspinous space, cases of spina bifida in the lumbar and sacral spine, the shape of the last lumbar vertebra, and the location of intertransverse joints

Limitations

  • Not all horses underwent CT examination of the same regions, so comparisons across all cases could not be made
  • The upper size limit for horses that can undergo CT scanning is unknown and likely varies depending on the technology used
  • The image quality for larger horses was often degraded, affecting the interpretation of soft tissues

Conclusions

  • The study confirms that CT examination of the caudal spine and pelvis in live horses using wide-bored CT machines is safe and produced diagnostic images

Cite This Article

APA
Ogden NKE, Winderickx K, Bennell A, Stack JD. (2024). Computed tomography of the equine caudal spine and pelvis: Technique, image quality and anatomical variation in 56 clinical cases (2018-2023). Equine Vet J, 57(5), 1265-1278. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.14422

Publication

Equine veterinary journal
ISSN: 2042-3306
NlmUniqueID: 0173320
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 57
Issue: 5
Pages: 1265-1278

Researcher Affiliations

Ogden, Nadine Kristina Elise
  • B&W Equine Hospital, Berkeley, UK.
Winderickx, Katja
  • Lingehoeve Diergeneeskunde, Lienden, Netherlands.
Bennell, Alison
  • Leahurst Equine Hospital, University of Liverpool, Wirral, UK.
Stack, John David
  • Leahurst Equine Hospital, University of Liverpool, Wirral, UK.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Horses / anatomy & histology
  • Tomography, X-Ray Computed / veterinary
  • Tomography, X-Ray Computed / methods
  • Pelvis / diagnostic imaging
  • Pelvis / anatomy & histology
  • Retrospective Studies
  • Female
  • Spine / diagnostic imaging
  • Spine / anatomy & histology
  • Male

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

This article includes 47 references
  1. Solano M, Brawer RS. CT of the equine head: technical considerations, anatomical guide, and selected diseases.. Clin Tech Equine Pract 2004;3(4):374–388.
    doi: 10.1053/j.ctep.2005.02.016google scholar: lookup
  2. Gough SL, Anderson JDC, Dixon JJ. Computed tomographic cervical myelography in horses: technique and findings in 51 clinical cases.. J Vet Intern Med 2020;34(5):2142–2151.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.15848pmc: PMC7517850pubmed: 32705729google scholar: lookup
  3. Scilimati N, Beccati F, Dall'Aglio C, Di Meo A, Pepe M. Age and sex correlate with bony changes and anatomic variations of the lumbosacroiliac region of the vertebral column in a mixed population of horses.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2023;261(2):258–265.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.22.07.0293pubmed: 36350755google scholar: lookup
  4. Spoormakers TJP, Veraa S, Graat EAM, van Weeren PR, Brommer H. A comparative study of breed differences in the anatomical configuration of the equine vertebral column.. J Anat 2021;260(10):1206–1210.
    doi: 10.1111/joa.13456pmc: PMC8450477pubmed: 33991425google scholar: lookup
  5. Jeffcott LB, Dalin G, Ekamn S, Olsson SE. Sacroiliac lesions as a cause of chronic poor performance in competitive horses.. Equine Vet J 1985;17(2):111–118.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1985.tb02063.xpubmed: 3987658google scholar: lookup
  6. Morgan RE, Fiske‐Jackson A, Chang Y. Comparison of ultrasonographic and computed tomographic imaging of equine thoracolumbar articular process joints.. Equine Vet J 2023;56(5):989–998.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.14017pubmed: 37904723google scholar: lookup
  7. Barstow A, Dyson S. Clinical features and diagnosis of sacroiliac joint region pain in 296 horses: 2004‐2014.. Equine Vet Educ 2015;27(2):637–647.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12377google scholar: lookup
  8. Quiney LE, Ireland JL, Dyson SJ. Evaluation of the diagnostic accuracy of skeletal scintigraphy in lame and poorly performing sports horses.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2018;59(4):477–489.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12626pubmed: 29738101google scholar: lookup
  9. Gorgas D, Kircher P, Doherr MG, Ueltschi G, Lang J. Radiographic technique and anatomy of the equine sacroiliac region.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2007;48(6):501–506.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2007.00287.xpubmed: 18018720google scholar: lookup
  10. Barrett EL, Talbot AM, Driver AJ, Barr FJ, Barr ARS. A technique for pelvic radiography in the standing horse.. Equine Vet J 2006;38:266–270.
    doi: 10.2746/042516406776866435pubmed: 16706284google scholar: lookup
  11. Walker WT, Werpy NM, Goodrich LR. Procedure for the transrectal and transcutaneous ultrasonographic diagnosis of pelvic fractures in the horse.. J Equine Vet Sci 2012;32(4):222–230.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2011.09.067google scholar: lookup
  12. Amitrano FN, Gutierrez‐Nibeyro SD, Joslyn SK. Radiographic diagnosis of craniodorsal coxofemoral luxation in standing equids.. Equine Vet Educ 2014;26(5):255–258.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12156google scholar: lookup
  13. Vautravers G, Coudry V, Denoix JM. Review of the use of transrectal ultrasonography for evaluation of the caudal lumbar—including lumbosacral—intervertebral discs and symphyses: Normal and abnormal ultrasonographic appearance.. Equine Vet Educ 2021;33(6):310–319.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.13313google scholar: lookup
  14. Kersten AAM, Edinger J. Ultrasonographic examination of the equine sacroiliac region.. Equine Vet J 2004;36(7):602–608.
    doi: 10.2746/0425164044864480pubmed: 15581325google scholar: lookup
  15. Nagy A, Dyson S, Barr A. Ultrasonographic findings in the lumbosacral joint of 43 horses with no clinical signs of back pain or hindlimb lameness.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2010;51(2):533–539.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2010.01691.xpubmed: 20973388google scholar: lookup
  16. Ohlerth S, Scharf G. Computed tomography in small animals—basic principles and state of the art applications.. Open Vet J 2007;173(2):254–271.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2005.12.014pubmed: 16516508google scholar: lookup
  17. Yitbarek D, Dagnaw GG. Application of advanced imaging modalities in veterinary medicine: a review.. Vet Med Res 2022;13:117–130.
    doi: 10.2147/VMRR.S367040pmc: PMC9166686pubmed: 35669942google scholar: lookup
  18. Wise R, Jones J, Werre S, Aguirre M. The prevalence of sacroiliac joint CT and MRI findings is high in large breed dogs.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2022;63(6):739–748.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.13109pmc: PMC9669105pubmed: 35679472google scholar: lookup
  19. Barba M, Lepage OM. Diagnostic utility of computed tomography imaging in foals: 10 cases (2008–2010).. Equine Vet Educ 2013;25(1):29–38.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2012.00422.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  20. Whitcomb MB, Vaughan B, Katzman S, Hersman J. Ultrasound‐guided injections in horses with cranioventral distension of the coxofemoral joint capsule: feasibility for a cranioventral approach.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2016;57(2):199–206.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12323pubmed: 26748616google scholar: lookup
  21. Stack JD, Bergamino C, Sanders R, Fogarty U, Puggioni A, Kearney C. Comparison of two ultrasound guided injection techniques targeting the sacroiliac joint region in equine cadavers.. Vet Comp Orthop Traumatol 2016;29(5):386–393.
    doi: 10.3415/VCOT-16-03-0041pubmed: 27468977google scholar: lookup
  22. Ogden NKE, Winderickx K, Stack JD. Computed tomography of the equine caudal spine and pelvis. Pathological findings in 56 clinical cases (2018–2023).. Equine Vet J 2025;57(5):1279–1289.
    pmc: PMC12326895pubmed: 39428125
  23. Scilimati N, Beccati F, Pepe M, Angeli G, Dall'Aglio C, Di Meo A. Post‐mortem ultrasonographic and computed tomographic features of the anatomical variations and acquired pathological bony changes of the lumbosacroiliac region in a mixed population of horses.. Equine Vet J 2023;56(5):1019–1030.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.14033pubmed: 38069484google scholar: lookup
  24. Lindgren CM, Wright L, Kristoffersen M, Puchalski SM. Computed tomography and myelography of the equine cervical spine: 180 cases (2013–2018).. Equine Vet Educ 2021;33(9):475–483.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.13350google scholar: lookup
  25. Senior JM. Morbidity, mortality, and risk of general anesthesia in horses.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2013;29(1):1–18.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2012.11.007pubmed: 23498043google scholar: lookup
  26. Moreno KL, Scallan EM, Friedeck WO, Simon BT. Transient pelvic limb neuropathy following proximal metatarsal and tarsal magnetic resonance imaging in seven horses.. Equine Vet J 2020;52(3):359–363.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.13181pubmed: 31498918google scholar: lookup
  27. Franci P, Leece EA, Brearley JC. Post anaesthetic myopathy/neuropathy in horses undergoing magnetic resonance imaging compared to horses undergoing surgery.. Equine Vet J 2006;38(6):497–501.
    doi: 10.2746/042516406X156505pubmed: 17124838google scholar: lookup
  28. Pilsworth RC. Diagnosis and management of pelvic fractures in the Thoroughbred racehorse.. 2011;p. 564–571.
    doi: 10.1016/B978-1-4160-6069-7.00049-3google scholar: lookup
  29. d'Anjou M‐A. Principles of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging.. 2018;p. 71–95.
    doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-48247-9.00017-6google scholar: lookup
  30. Schofield R, King L, Tayal U, Castellano I, Stirrup J, Pontana F. Image reconstruction: part 1—understanding filtered back projection, noise and image acquisition.. J Cardiovasc Comput Tomogr 2020;14(3):219–225.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jcct.2019.04.008pubmed: 31023632google scholar: lookup
  31. Hsieh J. Image artifacts: appearances, causes, and corrections.. 2009;p. 207–299.
  32. Quiney L, Stewart J, Routh J, Dyson S. Gross post‐mortem and histological features in 27 horses with confirmed lumbosacral region pain and five control horses: a descriptive cadaveric study.. Equine Vet J 2022;54(4):726–739.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.13488pubmed: 34118082google scholar: lookup
  33. van Weeren PR, McGowan C, Haussler KK. Science overview: development of a structural and functional understanding of the equine back.. Equine Vet J 2010;42:393–400.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00207.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  34. Veraa S, Bergmann W, van den Belt AJ, Wijnberg I, Back W. Ex vivo computed tomographic evaluation of morphology variations in equine cervical vertebrae.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2016;57(5):482–488.
    pubmed: 27438135
  35. Denoix JM, Audigié F, Coudry V. A review of diagnosis and treatment of lumbosacral pain in sport and race horses.. Proc Am Assoc Equine Pract 2005;51:366–373.
  36. Stubbs NC, Hodges PW, Jeffcott LB, Cowin G, Hodgson DR, McGowan CM. Functional anatomy of the caudal thoracolumbar and lumbosacral spine in the horse.. Equine Vet J 2006;38(S36):393–399.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2006.tb05575.xpubmed: 17402454google scholar: lookup
  37. Zimmerman M, Dyson S, Murray R. Close, impinging and overriding spinous processes in the thoracolumbar spine: the relationship between radiological and scintigraphic findings and clinical signs.. Equine Vet J 2012;44(2):178–184.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2011.00373.xpubmed: 21880062google scholar: lookup
  38. Girodroux M, Dyson S, Murray R. Osteoarthritis of the thoracolumbar synovial intervertebral articulations: clinical and radiographic features in 77 horses with poor performance and back pain.. Equine Vet J 2009;41(2):130–138.
    pubmed: 19418740
  39. Zimmerman M, Dyson S, Murray R. Comparison of radiographic and scintigraphic findings of the spinous processes in the equine thoracolumbar region.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2011;52:661–671.
    pubmed: 21699620
  40. Fuglbjerg V, Nielsen JV, Thomsen PD, Berg LC. Accuracy of ultrasound‐guided injections of thoracolumbar articular process joints in horses: a cadaveric study.. Equine Vet J 2010;42(1):18–22.
    pubmed: 20121908
  41. Denoix JM. Spinal biomechanics and functional anatomy.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 1999;15(1):27–60.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30162-1pubmed: 10218240google scholar: lookup
  42. Jones KE. Preliminary data on the effect of osseous anatomy on ex vivo joint mobility in the equine thoracolumbar region.. Equine Vet J 2016;48(4):502–508.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12461pubmed: 25980342google scholar: lookup
  43. Baudisch N, Schneidewind L, Becke S, Keller M, Overhoff M, Tettke D. Computed tomographic study analysing functional biomechanics in the thoracolumbar spine of horses with and without spinal pathology.. Anat Histol Embryol 2024;53(1):e13016.
    doi: 10.1111/ahe.13016pubmed: 38230834google scholar: lookup
  44. VanderBroek A, Stubbs NC, Clayton HM. Osseous pathology of the synovial intervertebral articulations in the equine thoracolumbar spine.. J Equine Vet Sci 2016;44:67–73.
  45. Spoormakers TJP, Veraa S, Graat EAM, van Weeren PR, Brommer H. Osseous pathologic changes in the lumbar region of the equine vertebral column: a descriptive post‐mortem study in three breeds.. Equine Vet J 2023;56(5):1031–1040.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.14035pubmed: 38126939google scholar: lookup
  46. Spoormakers TJP, Bergmann W, Veraa S, van Weeren PR, Brommer H. The existence of intertransverse joints in young warmblood foals.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2022;260(10):1206–1210.
    pubmed: 35482562
  47. Stubbs NC, Riggs CM, Hodges PW, Jeffcott LB, Hodgson DR, Clayton HM. Osseous spinal pathology and epaxial muscle ultrasonography in Thoroughbred racehorses.. Equine Vet J 2010;42:654–661.
    pubmed: 21059076

Citations

This article has been cited 2 times.
  1. Mathys RA, Schmitz TR, Geyer H, Borel N, Hilbe M, Ohlerth S, Bischofberger AS. Multi-Detector Helical Computed Tomography, Transrectal Ultrasonography, and Histology of the Sacroiliac Joint: A Comparative Study in Adult Warmblood Horse Cadavers. Animals (Basel) 2025 Jul 7;15(13).
    doi: 10.3390/ani15131995pubmed: 40646894google scholar: lookup
  2. Ogden NKE, Winderickx K, Stack JD. Computed tomography of the equine caudal spine and pelvis. Pathological findings in 56 clinical cases (2018-2023). Equine Vet J 2025 Sep;57(5):1279-1289.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.14426pubmed: 39428125google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 100,129 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.