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Topic:Soft Tissue
Soft tissue in horses encompasses the non-bony structures that support and connect various parts of the body, including muscles, tendons, ligaments, and fascia. These tissues are essential for movement, stability, and overall musculoskeletal function. Injuries to soft tissue can result from trauma, overuse, or improper biomechanics, leading to conditions such as strains, sprains, and tears. Understanding the anatomy, healing processes, and rehabilitation strategies for soft tissue is important for managing equine health and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the structure, function, and treatment of soft tissue injuries in horses.
Osteosynthesis of bilateral, displaced incisive bone fracture in a horse. A nine-year-old Trakehner mare was presented three days after an episode of severe epistaxis, showing intermittent foul-smelling nasal discharge with feed material and rostral displacement of the upper incisor teeth. Radiographic and computed tomography examinations revealed a complete comminuted fracture of the right side and an oblique complete fracture of the left side nasal processes of the incisive bone and maxillary bone, as well as open fractures of the nasal septum and palatine bone with displacement of the incisor part rostrally and development of an oronasal communication. The fractu...
The in vitro application of high-intensity laser therapy on equine platelet-rich plasma and autologous protein solution does not alter select cytokine and growth factor concentrations. To quantify the effects of high-intensity laser therapy (HILT) on the concentration of key immunomodulatory cytokines and growth factors in equine platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and autologous protein solution (APS). We hypothesized that HILT treatment of PRP and APS in vitro would increase the concentration of cytokines and growth factors compared to untreated controls. Unassigned: Whole blood was collected from 6 adult horses housed at the University of Pennsylvania in March 2025 and processed into PRP or APS using commercially available systems (Zoetis). Platelet-rich plasma and APS samples wer...
Correlation of Positron Emission Tomography and Low-Field Standing Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Horses With Forelimb Lameness Localized to the Foot. Low-field magnetic resonance imaging (LF-MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) imaging can be obtained in the standing horse. There is potential for increased diagnostic capacity combining PET with MRI, given that PET assesses the metabolic activity of injured tissues, whereas MRI provides structural and functional details on both bone and soft tissue anatomy. This study aimed to describe 18-fluorine-fluorodeoxyglucose (F-FDG)-PET and 18-sodium fluoride (F-NaF)-PET imaging of horses with forelimb lameness localized to the foot and compare PET with LF-MRI. Fourteen horses with lameness lo...
Straight sesamoidean ligament desmopathy commonly occurs with proximal interphalangeal joint osteoarthritis. Proximal interphalangeal joint osteoarthritis (PIPJ OA) is a common cause of poor performance in the equine athlete; however, the supporting soft tissue structures surrounding the joint are seldom evaluated. Straight sesamoidean ligament injuries have been previously hypothesised to be concomitant with PIPJ OA; however, the frequency of these lesions coinciding with PIPJ OA has not been fully investigated. Objective: To investigate the prevalence of straight sesamoidean ligament desmopathy (SSLD) in horses presenting with PIPJ OA. Methods: Retrospective clinical study. Methods: Horses presenti...
Computed tomography long-term follow-up of a facial fracture involving the orbit and paranasal sinus. Fractures of the facial bones involving the orbit are challenging conditions that require surgical treatment. Objective: To describe preoperative and postoperative clinical and computed tomographic findings of an orbital rim fracture repaired using a reconstruction plate. Methods: Case report. Methods: A 14-year-old Haflinger mare was presented with an open, depressed and comminuted fracture involving the frontal, nasal, lacrimal and maxillary bone, sinus system and the medial aspect of the orbital rim and wall on the right side, as diagnosed by CT. Fracture repair included orbital rim reconst...
Ulcerative dermatitis, tendinitis, tenosynovitis, and desmitis caused by chronic infection with Serratia odorifera in a racehorse. We investigated a case of severe infection in a racehorse. The horse had developed progressive lameness associated with swelling of the left tarsal region, which progressed to ulcerative dermatitis, tendinitis, tenosynovitis, and desmitis. The plantar side of the superficial digital flexor (SDF) tendon was visible through the skin ulcer, and coalescing nodules were present in the dermis. The horse was euthanized and an autopsy was performed. Grossly, in addition to the changes described above, severe edema of the soft tissues was associated with the ulcer. Microscopically, necrotizing and ulc...
Comparison of Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Computed Tomography for Evaluation of Cervical Vertebral Nerves and Synovial Tissues in Horses with Cervical Spinal Disease. Pathology of the cervical spine is an important cause of poor performance in sport horses. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have improved musculoskeletal diagnostic capabilities. CT is well-suited to assess osseous pathology, although it is limited for assessing soft tissues. MRI, the gold standard for imaging soft tissues, cannot be used for antemortem imaging of the equine cervical spine. The diagnostic potential of CT for evaluating soft tissues of the equine cervical spine compared to MRI is not well-defined and warrants investigation. Postmortem MRI was perfor...
Use of strain and shear wave elastography in the ultrasonographic evaluation of the intermediate patellar ligament in horses: comparison and consistency of data. The clinical significance and ultrasonographic features of intermediate patellar ligament (IPL) desmopathy in horses are still debated and considered nonspecific. Elastosonography allows assessment of tissue elasticity in response to an external stimulus. The aim of the study was to describe the elastosonographic characteristics of the equine IPL, evaluate the feasibility of both strain (SE) and two-dimensional shear wave elastography (2D-SWE), and assess the consistency of the data obtained from these techniques. 20 adult horses of mixed breed, sex and athletic use were selected and allocated...
Historical perspectives guide advances in equine minimally invasive soft tissue surgery. Equine minimally invasive soft tissue surgical techniques have increased in demand and frequency with concurrent expansion of training programs under the oversight of the American College of Veterinary Surgeons. Benefits of recent advances in laparoscopic techniques include reduced cost and risk associated with general anesthesia and anesthetic recovery, improved visualization of the surgical field relative to open procedures, and more rapid return to performance, further improving patient welfare and limiting economic loss to the industry following surgical interventions. The evolution of lap...
Piezosurgical partial ostectomy of the incisive bone for an ossifying fibroma removal in a 4-year-old Warmblood gelding. Ossifying fibromas are uncommon in horses and complete surgical excision with premaxillectomy, maxillectomy or mandibulectomy is recommended. Piezosurgery has been previously used in equines only in one study. Objective: To report a case of ossifying fibroma treated with piezosurgery and to describe its follow-up. Methods: Clinical case report. Methods: A 4-year-old Zangersheide gelding was presented for a mass occupying the space of tooth 202. Histology confirmed the diagnosis of ossifying fibroma, which was removed by resection of soft tissues and a slice of the premaxilla with a piezotome. ...
Standing computed tomographic tenography is reliable in identifying soft tissue lesions within the digital flexor tendon sheath in horses. To determine the diagnostic performance of standing computed tomographic tenography (CTT) in detecting naturally occurring intrathecal lesions of the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT), deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT), manica flexoria (MF), and in identifying palmar/plantar annular ligament (PAL) desmitis and constriction in horses undergoing tenoscopy. Methods: Retrospective observational study. Methods: Client-owned horses of various breeds and use, median age of 12.5 years (range: 6-20 years). Methods: A total of 24 horses with inconclusive ultrasonographic and contrast tenograp...
Preprocedural Radiographic Measurements Facilitate Centesis of the Equine Navicular Bursa. For centesis of the equine navicular bursa radiographs confirming needle placement are recommended, this can be a logistical challenge. Therefore, we aimed to identify the usefulness of radiographic measurements for centesis of the navicular bursa. On lateromedial radiographs localization of the centre of the flexor surface of the navicular bone was determined in 26 isolated limbs. Based on these measurements, 21 novice veterinary students performed 130 needle placements using the axial distal palmar technique injecting one of five dyes per cadaver limb. Success was identified on dissection as...
[Cone beam computed tomography and cross-sectional anatomy of the carpal region in the horse]. Subject matter and objectiveThe aim of this study was to display clinically relevant anatomical structures of the carpal region in healthy horses with the help of cone beam computed tomography (CBCT).Materials and methods: Twenty-eight forelimbs from 15 adult horses without orthopedic diseases were examined. Following native CBCT examination a mixture of hyperattenuating contrast medium with blue epoxy resin dye was injected in the antebrachiocarpal joint and middle carpal joint and contrast-enhanced CBCT scans were also acquired. Subsequently, the limbs were frozen and sawed in different plan...
Extracorporeal shock wave therapy in equine and canine practice. To describe the proposed mechanism of action of shock wave therapy and discuss treatment considerations and guidelines for use in equine and canine practice. Unassigned: Client-owned animals with owner consent. Unassigned: Shock wave therapy is proposed to stimulate healing by generating forces that cause cells to undergo microtrauma and release anti-inflammatory cytokines and growth factors into the treated tissues. While the 4 types of shock wave therapies are discussed, electrohydraulic and piezoelectric are described in detail, as they are most utilized in veterinary medicine for the treat...
Effect of palmar digital perineural analgesia (as a model for “nerving”) on forelimb loading over varied surfaces at the walk and trot – a pilot study. Navicular syndrome is characterized by palmar foot pain and is a common cause of lameness in horses. Palmar digital neurectomy (nerving) removes sensation to the heel region of the hoof and may serve as a treatment for navicular-afflicted horses, while analgesia (blocking) results in temporary loss of sensation. Objective: The purpose of this pilot study was to examine the effect of loss of sensation in the heel on the forelimb area and force while tracking on soft and hard ground at the walk and trot. Methods: Three horses that scored a 0 or 1 on the AAEP lameness scale were fitted to Tekscan...
Deep learning cascade networks for segmentation of fluorine-18 sodium fluoride positron emission tomography scans of equine metacarpo- and metatarsophalangeal joints outperform atlas-based method. To create a labeled dataset and evaluate a convolutional neural network (CNN) for segmentation of fluorine-18 sodium fluoride PET scans of the equine metacarpo- and metatarsophalangeal joint (fetlock), targeting the third metacarpal bone, proximal phalanx, proximal sesamoid bone(s), and soft tissue. Unassigned: PET and corresponding CT scans were retrospectively selected from June 2024 through November 2025 using convenience sampling and coregistered to a common reference frame. The coregistered PET-CT scans were manually labeled; the labels were then transferred to PET-only images and used to...
Evaluation of computed tomographic anatomy of the foot in Jeju horses. Foot diseases are common causes of lameness in horses. Computed tomography (CT) is a valuable tool for diagnosing musculoskeletal lesions in horses and providing a detailed evaluation of foot diseases. Objective: The objective of this study was to establish reference ranges related to the feet of normal Jeju horses by measuring the angles and length of the hoof, and the Hounsfield Unit (HU) value of soft tissues in the foot. Methods: Sixteen normal Jeju horses (mean age: 4.25 years; mean body weight: 282.06 kg) without lameness were examined using CT. After CT scanning, the angles and lengths ...
Commentary on MacKechnie-Guire et al. Measuring Noseband Tightness on the Lateral Aspect of the Horse’s Face. Animals 2015, 15, 537. The use of horses for sport is under scrutiny due to evidence that common practices such as tight nosebands may impair horse welfare. Restrictive nosebands prevent horses from performing normal comfort behaviour such as coughing and yawning. To address these concerns, the International Society for Equitation Science (ISES) developed a noseband tightness-checking device, the ISES "taper gauge," along with a validated method that assesses how far the device can be inserted beneath the noseband at the dorsal midline of the nasal planum. However, citing concerns about the reliability of dorsal mid...
Full Clinical Pathological and Bacteriological Investigation of a Giant Nasal Polyp Associated With the Developing Apex of the Permanent Fourth Premolar (Triadan 108) in a 3-year-old Connemara Filly: A Case Report. A 3-year-old Connemara X filly was referred to a UK equine hospital for further investigation of unilateral nasal discharge and facial swelling. Diagnostic imaging documented the presence of a heterogenous, soft tissue opacity with areas of focal mineralisation within the right paranasal sinuses, completely obliterating the nasal cavity, in addition to endodontic disease and significant periapical pathology associated with the right permanent fourth premolar (Triadan 108). Subsequent histopathologic examination confirmed the mass as a fibro-inflammatory polyp.
Efficacy of Ozone Bagging Therapy in Equine Chronic Distal Limb Wounds: Clinical Evaluation of Eight Cases. Limb wounds in horses represent a significant therapeutic challenge due to poor vascularization, reduced skin elasticity, and high risk of complications such as exuberant granulation tissue. Conventional treatments sometimes fail to provide satisfactory healing outcomes, leading to prolonged recovery and increased costs. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of topical ozone therapy using the bagging method in promoting the epithelialization and contraction of chronic distal limb wounds in horses refractory to conventional management. Eight horses, aged 3-21 years, with chronic wounds aver...
Measuring Equine Hooves in Radiographs and Computed Tomography Images Reveals Unexpected Size Differences. In a previous study on hoof biometry, we found that mathematical correction of measuring results from radiographs did not lead to complete correspondence to computed tomography (CT) results. The present study investigates this finding by comparing 13 measures of six cadaveric equine digits collected with the following workflows: radiographs with 1 and 2 m focus-object distance (FOD) (Xray 1 m/2 m), computed tomography images in planes defined based on anatomical landmarks (CTw), simulated radiographs based on the tomography dataset (virtual 120-mm slabs, Xray Sim) and measurements based ...
Radiographic imaging of the entheses of the equine thoracic foot. An injury of a tendon or ligament of the equine foot is frequently a cause of lameness. The optimal radiographic projections delineating the entheses of five commonly injured tendons and ligaments of the foot should be described. Methods: The entheses of the collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint, the collateral sesamoidean ligaments of the navicular bone, the deep digital flexor tendon, the common digital extensor tendon and the distal sesamoidean impar ligament were isolated from a thoracic foot of three cadavers. Three standard radiographic projections (60-degree, dorsopro...
Ultrasonography and shear wave elastography of equine skin: a preliminary study. To noninvasively characterize skin thickness and elasticity in healthy horses using B-mode ultrasound and shear wave elastography (SWE) and to verify whether there are differences between the skin of stabled and outdoor horses. Unassigned: 10 clinically healthy horses were enrolled in this study. Five animals were housed exclusively indoors (indoor group), and 5 had temporary or permanent access to an outdoor environment (outdoor group). All horses underwent bilateral ultrasonographic examination of 3 anatomical regions: neck, withers, and girth region caudal to the elbow. Skin thickness was a...
Orthopaedic Injuries in 272 Dressage Horses: A Retrospective Study. There is limited information regarding orthopaedic injuries in dressage horses. This study assessed the prevalence of injuries in a mixed referral and first opinion population of 272 horses training and competing in dressage, 238 of which were followed up one to five years after injury. Warmblood (55.8%) and Iberian (38.6%) breeds predominated. The median age was 8 years (interquartile range [IQR] 5,11; range 1,21). Horses were examined due to lameness (85.3%) or poor performance (14.7%). The median lameness grade was 2/5 (IQR 2,4; range 0,4). Forelimb lameness was more prevalent than hindlimb...
Complications in Wound Management. Over 25% of all emergencies are classified as wounds, making them the most common health conditions treated by veterinarians. While equine wounds may heal with minimal intervention, many complications associated with wound management can occur, thereby delaying wound healing and leading to chronic non-healing wounds. Wounds should be closed primarily when possible; however, numerous factors influence the risk of complications. Infection and biofilm production are common causes of delayed wound healing. Other causes of non-healing wounds include the presence of foreign material, sequestrum form...
An occupational group with multiple musculoskeletal trauma and precarious employment: jockeys. Jockeys endure considerable physical and psychological demands, rendering them vulnerable to occupational injuries such as fractures, concussions, and soft tissue damage. This descriptive case series presents the medical and occupational histories of three professional jockeys with long-term disabilities following work-related accidents. Each individual commenced their jockey career in early adolescence. All sustained head trauma from horse falls and had histories of hospitalization due to injuries incurred while riding. Documented injuries included rib, vertebral, clavicular, and upper extrem...
Distal interphalangeal joint capsule enthesopathy of the middle phalanx and articular cartilage loss. Significant distal interphalangeal joint (DIPJ) pathology, particularly affecting soft tissue and articular cartilage, is often not identifiable on radiographs but can be accompanied by joint capsule enthesopathy on the middle phalanx (P2), which can be readily identified. Objective: To explore frequency and correlations between DIPJ capsule enthesopathy identified on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and radiographs and DIPJ articular cartilage abnormalities and other concurrent soft tissue or osseous pathology within the foot found on MRI. Methods: Retrospective descriptive case series. Metho...
Evaluation of a modified one-stage technique for repair of third-degree perineal laceration and rectovestibular fistula with rectal pull-back technique in 12 mares: a retrospective case series. This study was carried out to evaluate a rectal pull-back one-stage technique, which is a modification of the one-stage Goetz technique, for treating third-degree perineal laceration or rectovestibular fistula. Methods: This study was performed on 12 mares, ten of whom suffered from third-grade perineal laceration, and two suffered from rectovestibular fistula and were included in this study. After incision of the vestibular shelf horizontally, the dissected rectal flap was pulled caudally and sutured to the anal sphincter during its reconstruction at the final stage. While the vestibular shel...
2D-shear wave elastographic features of normal and injured equine superficial digital flexor tendons. Superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) injuries cause progressive loss of its mechanical properties. Two-dimensional shear wave elastography (2D-SWE) provides information about tissue stiffness. Objective: To determine the feasibility, repeatability, and reproducibility of 2D-SWE of healthy and pathological forelimb SDFT. Methods: Prospective observational cohort study. Methods: Horses were divided into a noninjured Group (H) and a Group with tendinopathy of the SDFT (P). 2D-SWE of both fore SDFTs was performed at three metacarpal levels (A, B, and C, from proximal to distal). Qualitative an...
Clinical and ultrasonographic findings in horses with desmopathy of the palmar/plantar abaxial ligaments of the proximal interphalangeal joint: 20 cases. To describe the clinical and ultrasonographic findings in horses with desmopathy of the abaxial palmar/plantar ligament (APL) of the proximal interphalangeal joint and the prevalence of concurrent musculoskeletal injuries in the pastern and foot. Unassigned: Horses presenting to New Bolton Center between March 2017 and November 2022 with an age ranging from 5 to 20 years that underwent lameness evaluation in which lameness was localized to the distal limb and had an ultrasonographic diagnosis of APL desmopathy. Unassigned: Horses included were those that (1) presented for a lameness examinatio...
