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Topic:Treadmill Exercise
Treadmill exercise for horses involves the use of a controlled mechanical platform to simulate various gaits and intensities of physical activity. This form of exercise allows for consistent and measurable training conditions, which can be used for rehabilitation, fitness assessment, and performance enhancement. Treadmill exercise facilitates the study of equine locomotion, respiratory function, and cardiovascular response under standardized conditions. It is also utilized in research to evaluate the effects of different training regimens and to investigate metabolic and physiological responses to exercise. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the methodology, applications, and implications of treadmill exercise in equine practice.
Equine Blood and Salivary Cortisol Levels While Exercising on a Water Treadmill with an Artificial River System. A water treadmill (WT) is used in equine rehabilitation and training. This study aimed to investigate whether varying water depths and using an active artificial river (AR) system during water treadmill exercise would affect physiological stress responses in leisure horses. Thirteen leisure horses participated in five 20 min WT sessions, including those with a treadmill with dry belt, fetlock-depth WT (with/without AR), and carpal-depth WT (with/without AR) at a walking speed of 1.25 m/s. Blood and salivary cortisol levels were measured before, immediately after, and 30 min after exercise. Blo...
Infrared Thermographic Assessment of Exercise-Induced Changes in Local Surface Temperature in Horses Following Treadmill Training: Preliminary Findings. Physical exercise induces physiological adaptations associated with increased muscular activity, metabolic heat production, and changes in body surface temperature. Infrared thermography has emerged as a non-invasive technique for assessing these thermal responses in horses. The present study aimed to evaluate the ability of infrared thermography to detect changes in mean local surface temperature and to qualitatively assess alterations in thermal distribution patterns following treadmill exercise. Methods: Three clinically healthy Warmblood horses were monitored over 10 consecutive training s...
Horses undergoing supramaximal fixed-speed treadmill exercise after administration of furosemide experience less severe acidosis and slower onset of fatigue. To document changes in acid-base and ion balance during exercise following furosemide administration and to relate them to performance. Unassigned: 6 fit Thoroughbred horses received 0.5 mg/kg IV furosemide (F) or a placebo (C) in randomized crossover order 4 hours before galloping to fatigue on a treadmill at the speed equated with an oxygen demand of 1.15 X maximum oxygen consumption (V˙o2max). Arterial and mixed venous blood was sampled before treatment, preexercise, after 2-minute warm-up, at fatigue, and 1 minute postexercise. The pH, temperature-corrected Pco2, total CO2, and sodium, po...
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response and glucose homeostasis during exercise to fatigue before and after training in old and young adult Standardbred mares. While reduced cortisol responses to exercise have been described in older horses, the effects of aging and training on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) and downstream metabolic signaling are currently unknown. Unassigned: This study tested the hypothesis that age and exercise training alter the response of the HPA axis, insulin, and glucose during an acute exercise challenge to fatigue. Methods: Six old (22.0±0.7 years) and six young adult (7.3±0.6 years) unfit Standardbred mares were tested. Mares ran a graded exercise test before (GXT1) and after (GXT2) 8 weeks of trainin...
The Utility and Reliability of Treadmill Tests for Monitoring Thoroughbreds in Training. This study evaluated the reliability of five treadmill protocols that assess heart rate (HR) and blood lactate (Bla) responses in Thoroughbred horses to determine their effectiveness in serving as potential tools for monitoring fitness and the wellbeing of racehorses. Of the five exercise tests, four consisted of repeated interval gallops at constant speeds (8 m/s and 10 m/s) and grade (6°) and one test of a continuous gallop at constant speeds (8 m/s) and grade (6°). Eight hundred and twenty-three gallops in total were performed by 64 horses. The test-retest reliability and absolute agreeme...
Equine upper limb kinematics: Comparison between biplanar high-speed fluoroscopic kinematography and optoelectronic motion capture in one Mini Shetland Pony. There are no studies describing the kinematics of the proximal limb skeleton in living equids. In horses like in all other therian mammals studied so far, the scapula rotates around an instantaneous center of rotation rather than a fixed pivot point, which increases the susceptibility of skin marker-based methods to inaccuracies. Objective: The aim of the study was to describe the skeletal movement of the proximal equine limb and to overcome limitations traditionally associated with skin marker displacement errors. Methods: Optoelectronic motion capture (OMC) and biplanar high-speed fluoroscop...
Conserved skeletal muscle transcriptomic responses to pacing strategies in Thoroughbred horses. This study investigated whether different pacing patterns during high-intensity exercise elicit distinct transcriptional responses in equine skeletal muscle. Eight Thoroughbred horses completed two treadmill exercise sessions in a randomized crossover design. In the positive-pacing condition, horses exercised at 110% maximal O₂ uptake (V˙O₂max) for 1 min followed by 90% V˙O₂max for 1 min, whereas in the negative-pacing condition, the order was reversed. At 4 h after exercise, the positive-pacing protocol resulted in upregulation of 1,989 genes and downregulation of 840 genes, whereas t...
Surface electromyography and joint angle kinematics of horses at walk and trot on a treadmill. This study aimed to evaluate electromyographic and kinematic parameters of the thoracic and pelvic limbs of horses at a walk and trot on a treadmill. Eleven Brazilian Sport Horses trained for Eventing were assessed in a completely randomized design under two conditions: walk (1.8 m/s) and trot (3.6 m/s). Horses were evaluated on a high-speed treadmill using surface electromyography (sEMG) and kinematic analysis. sEMG was performed bilaterally on the mm. extensor carpi radialis and mm. flexor carpi ulnaris; bilateral muscles of the pelvic limb: mm. tensor fascia latae and mm. biceps femoris u...
Effect of exercise-related nasopharyngeal disorders on upper airway function in racehorses. Exercise-related upper respiratory tract (URT) disorders are frequently diagnosed in racehorses. Treatment recommendations are routinely based on subjective assessment of clinical evaluation and exercising endoscopy findings. Objective: To objectively investigate how palatal instability (PI), intermittent dorsal displacement of the soft palate (iDDSP), alar fold collapse (AFC), and nasopharyngeal collapse (NPC) affect upper airway function during exercise in racehorses. Methods: Observational study with case-control comparisons. Methods: Inspiratory and expiratory tracheal pressures (cmHO) wer...
Aqua training promotes changes of skeletal muscle mass in show jumping horses. The correct prescription of aquatic treadmill training for equine athletes depends on understanding the muscular changes generated by working in the water. Objective: The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that the inclusion of a water treadmill in a routine training protocol would alter muscle mass of show jumping horses. Methods: Six fit-to-compete horses were trained for 10 weeks with a water treadmill (twice a week, 20 minutes, water level at the carpus), in addition to regular physical exercise. Body composition, infrared thermography (IRT) of propulsive muscles (m. brachiocepha...
Integrative Metabolomic and Echocardiographic Profiling Reveals Metabolic-Cardiac Structural Coupling in Yili Horses During Incremental Exercise. This study integrated echocardiography with widely targeted metabolomics to decipher how plasma metabolic dynamics couple with cardiac geometry in Yili horses during incremental treadmill exercise. Nine speed-type horses underwent a graded exercise test (6% incline; 0 to 9 m/s). Jugular venous blood samples collected at rest (0 m/s) and at 3, 5, 7, and 9 m/s were profiled by LC-MS, and Pearson correlation analysis was applied to relate differentially expressed metabolites (DEMs) to twenty echocardiographic structural indices. A core set of 314 shared DEMs (124 upregulated, 190 downregulated) w...
New Insights in Heart Rate Variability Through Non-Linear Methods for Conditioning Assessment in Horses. Chronic exercise induces significant adaptations across multiple physiological systems due to increased metabolic demand. Heart rate variability (HRV) has emerged as a prominent, non-invasive method for monitoring fitness, enabling inference of sympathovagal balance from time-series variations in electrocardiograms. Notably, nonlinear analyses have a strong capacity to detect and estimate complex mechanisms underlying cardiovascular modulation. In this context, HRV was evaluated in the time and frequency domains, as well as through nonlinear methods, in 12 young purebred Arabian horses undergo...
Ultrasound-guided injection of bupivacaine into the cricoarytenoid dorsalis muscle as a novel technique for transiently inducing laryngeal hemiplegia in horses. In clinical research, laryngeal hemiplegia (LH) is induced by temporarily supressing recurrent laryngeal nerve function; however, the technique is challenging. The aim was to develop a novel method to induce LH by injecting bupivacaine directly into the cricoarytenoid dorsalis (CAD) muscle with ultrasound guidance. Unassigned: 5 cadaver larynges and 9 Thoroughbreds with normal laryngeal function. Unassigned: Part 1: A high-frequency (6.5- to 13.0-MHz) linear ultrasound probe was used to inject methylene blue (5 mL) into the CAD of 5 cadaver larynges. Part 2: The left side of the larynges of 9 ...
Effect of heat acclimation training frequency on the physiological adaptations of Thoroughbred horses. Heat acclimation enhances thermoregulation and cardiovascular function. While daily training protocols are typically recommended for humans, optimal training protocols for Thoroughbred horses remain unclear. Here, we compared the effects of two heat acclimation protocols, consecutive and intermittent, in Thoroughbred horses. In a randomized crossover study, eight trained Thoroughbred horses completed either a consecutive (CONS: 9 consecutive days) or an intermittent (INT: 3 days/week for 3 weeks) heat acclimation protocol, comprising 30 min of exercise in hot conditions (WBGT 30°C). Increment...
Cardiac morphologic changes induced by a 10-week water treadmill training for show jumping horses: A preliminary evaluation. This study aimed to investigate cardiac adaptations and energy expenditure of jumping horses after water treadmill (WT) training. Six trained horses were evaluated before (PRETR) and after (TR) a WT training (20 min, twice/week, water at carpus height) for 10 weeks. Transthoracic echocardiography was performed at PRETR and TR with phased array transducer (1.9-4 MHz) to obtain interventricular septal thickness (IVS), LV internal diameter (LVID), and posterior wall thickness (LVPW) at end-diastole (d) and systole (s) and heart rate (HR). Left ventricule end diastolic volume (Vd) and end syst...
Alterations in blood metabolites as biomarkers of fatigue and recovery in thoroughbred horses performing repeated bouts of high-intensity exercise. High-intensity exercise in horses resulting in fatigue requires a better understanding of biomarkers defining the condition such that protocols detailing the return to work can be established. This study examined blood metabolite profiles after multiple sessions of high-intensity exercise to define physiological exhaustion. Adult Thoroughbred geldings (n = 10) underwent a standardized exercise test (SET) on a high-speed treadmill, with BHB, BCAAs, alanine, lactate, and CK measurements at regular intervals up to 6 h post-SET. Before and 24 h post-SET gluteus medius muscle samples were t...
Physiological adaptations to 6 weeks of high-intensity interval and moderate-intensity continuous training in horses: A randomized crossover study. This study tested the hypothesis that 6 weeks of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) would induce greater physiological adaptations than moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) in Thoroughbred horses. Seven untrained horses completed two distance-matched treadmill training protocols (three sessions per week) in a randomized crossover design, separated by a three-month washout: MICT (6 min at 70% ) and HIIT (6 × [30 s at 100% with 30 s at 30% ]). Incremental exercise tests were conducted at weeks 0, 3, and 6 to assess exercise performance and physiological responses. M...
Functional and histopathologic evidence of laryngeal reinnervation using the spinal accessory nerve in horses. To evaluate functional and histopathologic outcomes of standing selective laryngeal reinnervation using the spinal accessory nerve (SAN) in horses with experimentally induced recurrent laryngeal neuropathy (RLN). Methods: Five Thoroughbred mares. Methods: Prospective cohort study. Methods: The horses underwent left recurrent laryngeal neurectomy followed 8 weeks later by selective laryngeal reinnervation using the SAN. Follow-up evaluations at 4.5, 6, 8, and 12 months included treadmill exercising endoscopy, ultrasonography of intrinsic laryngeal muscles, and percutaneous electrical stimul...
Equine water treadmill. To describe the application of water treadmill exercise for equine fitness and/or rehabilitation in a scientific and clinically reasonable manner. Unassigned: Horses owned by Spy Coast Farm were used for video content. Unassigned: A literature review was performed and compiled in this brief video to provide veterinarians with a comprehensive, evidence-based guide for implementing water treadmill exercise within fitness and rehabilitation programs. Unassigned: Equine water treadmill exercise is an aerobic modality that increases distal limb flexion and range of motion, with no reported adverse ...
Endurance exercise induces distinct skeletal and cardiac mitochondrial adaptations in racehorses. Mitochondrial respiration sustains the high energy demands of endurance exercise, yet the extent to which atrial, ventricular, and skeletal muscle mitochondria adapt remains uncertain. At the same time, endurance athletes face an increased risk of atrial fibrillation (AF), but the role of cardiac metabolism in arrhythmia susceptibility is poorly understood. Here, we compared mitochondrial respiration in skeletal muscle and across all four cardiac chambers between trained and untrained racehorses ( = 34) to investigate adaptations associated with long-term endurance exercise. We further examine...
Evaluating the Accuracy of a Vision-Based Algorithm for Groundline Estimation in Trotting Horses Using Multiple Camera Angles. Equine lameness diagnosis largely relies on subjective visual assessments, which can be biased. Although marker-based methods, force plates and inertial measurement units (IMUs) provide objective measurements, they require specialized setups. Vision-based algorithms offer a portable, markerless alternative, but their accuracy needs thorough testing. Objective: To evaluate a custom vision-based algorithm for estimating the groundline across multiple camera angles, including handheld use in horses trotting on a treadmill. Methods: Experimental comparative study. Methods: Eight Standardbred trott...
Maximal Lactate Steady State Prediction Using Two DMAX Methods in Horses Subjected to Treadmill-Graded Exercise Test. Maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) and its predictive thresholds, including the lactate threshold (LT), are widely used to estimate endurance capacity, prescribe training, and assess the effects of training. The human literature identified approximately twenty-five methods to predict the MLSS. This communication compares the concordance between the two D methods and the MLSS. Under laboratory conditions, ten teaching horses underwent a submaximal graded exercise test (GXT) on a treadmill to obtain their lactate-velocity curves (LVC). They performed three to five 30-min continuous running sess...
A Feasibility Study to Determine Whether Neuromuscular Adaptations to Equine Water Treadmill Exercise Can Be Detected Using Synchronous Surface Electromyography and Kinematic Data. Despite growing evidence on the adaptive movement patterns that horses adopt during water treadmill (WT) exercise, underlying adaptations in muscle activity remain uninvestigated. This feasibility study aimed to develop a method for the synchronous measurement of muscle activity and movement of horses during WT exercise. Combined surface electromyography (sEMG) (2000 Hz) from selected hindlimb (biceps femoris, gluteus medius, tensor fasciae latae) and epaxial (longissimus dorsi) muscles, and three-dimensional kinematic (200 Hz) data from the back and pelvis of one (n = 1) horse were collected ...
Serum levels of the myokines receptor activator of nuclear factor κ B ligand, matrix metalloproteinase 2, and irisin in young horses during ontogeny and in response to exercise. To quantify circulating levels of myokines with a known role in bone remodeling (receptor activator of nuclear factor κ B ligand [RANK-L], matrix metalloproteinase 2 [MMP-2], and irisin) in foals in response to exercise and over the first year of life. Unassigned: 12 foals were enrolled in the study; 6 underwent an 8-week exercise program, and 6 were nonexercised controls. Blood samples were collected between 2 and 11 months of age. Receptor activator of nuclear factor κ B ligand, MMP-2, and irisin were quantified using equine-specific ELISAs. Unassigned: RANK-L, MMP-2, and irisin did not ch...
Using detrended fluctuation analysis and fast Fourier transformation of major peaks to estimate maximal lactate steady state from electrocardiograms of exercising horses. To compare maximal lactate steady-state (MLSS) speeds determined using a treadmill-dependent invasive reference method (RM) with 2 noninvasive methods based on heart rate variability-focused analysis of exercise ECGs. Unassigned: This was a randomized, blinded study using 7 fit Thoroughbreds. A standardized incremental exercise treadmill test (SET) where blood lactate concentration ([La]) was measured after every step facilitated calculation of speeds at which [La] was 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 mmol/L. The RM required steady-state exercise (SS) at each of these speeds for 25 minutes or until [La] incr...
Laser fenestration of the dorsal pharyngeal recess does not correct experimentally induced dorsal nasopharyngeal collapse in horses. To quantify the impact of experimentally induced dorsal nasopharyngeal collapse (NPC) on respiratory performance parameters and assess the efficacy of laser fenestration of the dorsal pharyngeal recess as a treatment option for experimentally induced NPC. Methods: Experimental interventional study. Methods: Six adult Standardbreds (one with naturally occurring disease). Methods: After an 8 week conditioning program, baseline parameters (V̇Omax, pharyngeal pressure, peak airflows, upper airway resistance) and dynamic endoscopy videos were collected in a high-speed treadmill test (T1). Dorsal N...
Relationship between weight-carrying capacity and performance in a standardized treadmill exercise test in horses. Weight-carrying capacity is important in riding horses both for performance and welfare, yet there is no standardized method to estimate individual horses' weight-carrying capacity. This study investigated the correlation between the physiological response during a (i) standardized incremental exercise test (SET) on a treadmill and a (ii) ridden incremental weight-carrying exercise test (WET). Sixteen horses (15 ± 3 years) performed both tests, including four steps with increased speed or weight load, respectively. Body weight ratio (BWR) in the WET was 20%, 25%, 30%, and 35% in each st...
Comparative analysis of miRNA expression in Yili horses pre- and post-5000-m race. Equine athletic performance is modulated by both genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. As dynamic regulators of gene expression, MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play a central role in the physiological response to exercise-induced stress18. This study focused on the top three elite Yili horses from a 5000-m race, collecting peripheral blood samples pre-race (group B) and post-race (group A). A longitudinal comparative analysis integrating miRNA omics profiling and target gene functional enrichment was performed. Nineteen miRNAs exhibited significant differential expression (10 upregulated, 9 downregulated), w...
The Effect of Girth Design and Girth Tension on Saddle-Horse Pressures and Forelimb Stride Kinematics in Rising Trot. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of girth design and girth tension; six horses regularly ridden were used. Each horse underwent four experimental sessions in an unbalanced Latin-square design with two girth tensions (8 kg or 16 kg) and two girth designs (straight girth (S) or anatomical girth (A)). Pressure between the saddle and the horse was measured at 100 Hz with a pressure mat (0.5 sensels per cm). Notably, 2D limb kinematics were determined from anatomical markers placed on the fore and hindlimbs. Video was collected at 240 fps. There was no significant effect of girth...
Does Muscle Development of Sport Horses Using Water Treadmill Exercise as Part of a Long-Term Training Programme Differ from That of Horses Not Using Water Treadmill Exercise? Water treadmill (WT) exercise has become a popular tool for equine training and rehabilitation. However, few studies describe the long-term effects of WT exercise in low water on muscle development (MD). This study's objectives were to compare MD changes over a 40-week period in sport horses that regularly used WT in low water within training (Group WTH, = 55) and a control group that did not (control, = 28). Subjective MD assessments were undertaken using an adaptation of a previously published method at weeks 0, 20 and 40. For Group WTH, MD significantly increased in the neck, pelvis and h...
