FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / J Virol / Envelope glycoprotein mutations mediate equine amplification...
Journal of virology2005; 79(14); 9128-9133; doi: 10.1128/JVI.79.14.9128-9133.2005

Envelope glycoprotein mutations mediate equine amplification and virulence of epizootic venezuelan equine encephalitis virus.

Abstract: Epidemics of Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) result from high-titer equine viremia of IAB and IC subtype viruses that mediate increased mosquito transmission and spillover to humans. Previous genetic studies suggest that mutations in the E2 envelope glycoprotein allow relatively viremia-incompetent, enzootic subtype ID strains to adapt for equine replication, leading to VEE emergence. To test this hypothesis directly, chimeric VEEV strains containing the genetic backbone of enzootic subtype ID strains and the partial envelope glycoprotein genes of epizootic subtype IC and IAB strains, as well as reciprocal chimeras, were used for experimental infections of horses. Insertion of envelope genes from two different, closely related enzootic subtype ID strains into the epizootic backbones resulted in attenuation, demonstrating that the epizootic envelope genes are necessary for the equine-virulent and viremia-competent phenotypes. The partial epizootic envelope genes introduced into an enzootic ID backbone were sufficient to generate the virulent, viremia-competent equine phenotype. These results indicate that a small number of envelope gene mutations can generate an equine amplification-competent, epizootic VEEV from an enzootic progenitor and underscore the limitations of small animal models for evaluating and predicting the epizootic phenotype.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2005-07-05 PubMed ID: 15994807PubMed Central: PMC1168750DOI: 10.1128/JVI.79.14.9128-9133.2005Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Research Support
  • N.I.H.
  • Extramural
  • Research Support
  • Non-U.S. Gov't
  • Research Support
  • U.S. Gov't
  • P.H.S.

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The study discusses the role of mutations in the E2 envelope glycoprotein in allowing subtype ID strains of Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) virus to adapt for equine replication, thereby leading to VEE emergence. The researchers created chimeric VEEV strains using these mutations and conducted experimental infections in horses. It was found that the mutations were necessary for the virus’s virulence and competence for viremia.

Methods and Materials

  • The researchers began by constructing chimeric VEEV strains. These strains had the genetic backbone of enzootic subtype ID strains and part of the envelope glycoprotein genes of epizootic subtype IC and IAB strains.
  • Additional chimeras were made by inserting the envelope genes from two distinct enzootic subtype ID strains into the epizootic backbones.
  • These chimeras were then used to infect horses in a controlled experiment. This allowed the researchers to monitor and analyze how the virus and its mutations interacted with the equine immune system and affected the disease’s progression.

Results and Discussion

  • The results of the experiments showed a clear link between the envelope glycoprotein mutations and the virus’s virulence (ability to cause severe illness) and viremia competence (ability to replicate within the host and produce high viral loads).
  • Specifically, they found that the introduction of envelope genes from enzootic ID strains into the epizootic strain resulted in an attenuated (weaker) form of the virus. This provided strong evidence that the envelope mutations are crucial for the virus’s ability to replicate within horses and cause severe illness.
  • Conversely, the introduction of partial epizootic envelope genes into the enzootic ID strain was sufficient to transform it into a virulent, viremia-competent form of the virus.
  • Therefore, the researchers concluded that a small number of envelope gene mutations can significantly alter the VEEV virus’s behavior and allow it to cause epidemics.

Implications and Conclusion

  • This research underscores the key role played by genetic mutations in viral evolution and emergence of new infectious diseases. Specifically, the findings highlight how relatively minor genetic changes can drastically affect a virus’s ability to replicate and cause disease within a new host species.
  • Despite the evident success of this investigation, the authors also pointed out the limitations of using small animal models to predict a virus’s behavior in larger organisms, highlighting the need for further research in this area.

Cite This Article

APA
Greene IP, Paessler S, Austgen L, Anishchenko M, Brault AC, Bowen RA, Weaver SC. (2005). Envelope glycoprotein mutations mediate equine amplification and virulence of epizootic venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. J Virol, 79(14), 9128-9133. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.79.14.9128-9133.2005

Publication

Journal of virology
ISSN: 0022-538X
NlmUniqueID: 0113724
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 79
Issue: 14
Pages: 9128-9133

Researcher Affiliations

Greene, Ivorlyne P
  • Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA.
Paessler, Slobodan
    Austgen, Laura
      Anishchenko, Michael
        Brault, Aaron C
          Bowen, Richard A
            Weaver, Scott C

              MeSH Terms

              • Animals
              • Chlorocebus aethiops
              • Cricetinae
              • Encephalitis Virus, Venezuelan Equine / pathogenicity
              • Encephalomyelitis, Venezuelan Equine / etiology
              • Horses
              • Mutation
              • Vero Cells
              • Viral Envelope Proteins / physiology
              • Viremia / virology
              • Virulence

              Grant Funding

              • R03 AI107536 / NIAID NIH HHS
              • K08 AI05949 / NIAID NIH HHS
              • AI10984 / NIAID NIH HHS
              • T32 AI107536 / NIAID NIH HHS
              • AI39800 / NIAID NIH HHS
              • T32 AI-107526 / NIAID NIH HHS
              • 417760 / PHS HHS
              • AI38807 / NIAID NIH HHS

              References

              This article includes 36 references
              1. Anishchenko M, Paessler S, Greene IP, Aguilar PV, Carrara AS, Weaver SC. Generation and characterization of closely related epizootic and enzootic infectious cDNA clones for studying interferon sensitivity and emergence mechanisms of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus.. J Virol 2004 Jan;78(1):1-8.
                pmc: PMC303380pubmed: 14671082doi: 10.1128/jvi.78.1.1-8.2004google scholar: lookup
              2. Beaty, B. J., C. H. Calisher, and R. E. Shope. 1989. Arboviruses, p. 797-855. In N. J. Schmidt and R. W. Emmons (ed.), Diagnostic procedures for viral, rickettsial and chlamydial infections, 6th ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
              3. Bernard KA, Klimstra WB, Johnston RE. Mutations in the E2 glycoprotein of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus confer heparan sulfate interaction, low morbidity, and rapid clearance from blood of mice.. Virology 2000 Oct 10;276(1):93-103.
                pubmed: 11021998doi: 10.1006/viro.2000.0546google scholar: lookup
              4. Brault AC, Powers AM, Holmes EC, Woelk CH, Weaver SC. Positively charged amino acid substitutions in the e2 envelope glycoprotein are associated with the emergence of venezuelan equine encephalitis virus.. J Virol 2002 Feb;76(4):1718-30.
                pmc: PMC135911pubmed: 11799167doi: 10.1128/jvi.76.4.1718-1730.2002google scholar: lookup
              5. Brault AC, Powers AM, Medina G, Wang E, Kang W, Salas RA, De Siger J, Weaver SC. Potential sources of the 1995 Venezuelan equine encephalitis subtype IC epidemic.. J Virol 2001 Jul;75(13):5823-32.
                pmc: PMC114297pubmed: 11390583doi: 10.1128/jvi.75.13.5823-5832.2001google scholar: lookup
              6. Brault AC, Powers AM, Ortiz D, Estrada-Franco JG, Navarro-Lopez R, Weaver SC. Venezuelan equine encephalitis emergence: enhanced vector infection from a single amino acid substitution in the envelope glycoprotein.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004 Aug 3;101(31):11344-9.
                pmc: PMC509205pubmed: 15277679doi: 10.1073/pnas.0402905101google scholar: lookup
              7. Brault AC, Powers AM, Weaver SC. Vector infection determinants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus reside within the E2 envelope glycoprotein.. J Virol 2002 Jun;76(12):6387-92.
                pmc: PMC136209pubmed: 12021373doi: 10.1128/jvi.76.12.6387-6392.2002google scholar: lookup
              8. Byrnes AP, Griffin DE. Binding of Sindbis virus to cell surface heparan sulfate.. J Virol 1998 Sep;72(9):7349-56.
                pmc: PMC109959pubmed: 9696831doi: 10.1128/jvi.72.9.7349-7356.1998google scholar: lookup
              9. Byrnes AP, Griffin DE. Large-plaque mutants of Sindbis virus show reduced binding to heparan sulfate, heightened viremia, and slower clearance from the circulation.. J Virol 2000 Jan;74(2):644-51.
                pmc: PMC111583pubmed: 10623725doi: 10.1128/jvi.74.2.644-651.2000google scholar: lookup
              10. Greene IP, Paessler S, Anishchenko M, Smith DR, Brault AC, Frolov I, Weaver SC. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in the guinea pig model: evidence for epizootic virulence determinants outside the E2 envelope glycoprotein gene.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2005 Mar;72(3):330-8.
                pubmed: 15772331
              11. Holland J, Domingo E. Origin and evolution of viruses.. Virus Genes 1998;16(1):13-21.
                pubmed: 9562888doi: 10.1023/a:1007989407305google scholar: lookup
              12. Johnson KM, Martin DH. Venezuelan equine encephalitis.. Adv Vet Sci Comp Med 1974;18(0):79-116.
                pubmed: 4609399
              13. Kinney RM, Chang GJ, Tsuchiya KR, Sneider JM, Roehrig JT, Woodward TM, Trent DW. Attenuation of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus strain TC-83 is encoded by the 5'-noncoding region and the E2 envelope glycoprotein.. J Virol 1993 Mar;67(3):1269-77.
                pmc: PMC237493pubmed: 7679745doi: 10.1128/jvi.67.3.1269-1277.1993google scholar: lookup
              14. Kinney RM, Johnson BJ, Welch JB, Tsuchiya KR, Trent DW. The full-length nucleotide sequences of the virulent Trinidad donkey strain of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus and its attenuated vaccine derivative, strain TC-83.. Virology 1989 May;170(1):19-30.
                pubmed: 2524126doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(89)90347-4google scholar: lookup
              15. Kinney RM, Tsuchiya KR, Sneider JM, Trent DW. Molecular evidence for the origin of the widespread Venezuelan equine encephalitis epizootic of 1969 to 1972.. J Gen Virol 1992 Dec;73 ( Pt 12):3301-5.
                pubmed: 1469368doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-73-12-3301google scholar: lookup
              16. Kissling RE, Chamberlain RW. Venezuelan equine encephalitis.. Adv Vet Sci 1967;11:65-84.
                pubmed: 4393985
              17. Powers AM, Brault AC, Kinney RM, Weaver SC. The use of chimeric Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses as an approach for the molecular identification of natural virulence determinants.. J Virol 2000 May;74(9):4258-63.
                pmc: PMC111942pubmed: 10756040doi: 10.1128/jvi.74.9.4258-4263.2000google scholar: lookup
              18. Powers AM, Oberste MS, Brault AC, Rico-Hesse R, Schmura SM, Smith JF, Kang W, Sweeney WP, Weaver SC. Repeated emergence of epidemic/epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis from a single genotype of enzootic subtype ID virus.. J Virol 1997 Sep;71(9):6697-705.
                pmc: PMC191949pubmed: 9261393doi: 10.1128/jvi.71.9.6697-6705.1997google scholar: lookup
              19. Rico-Hesse R, Weaver SC, de Siger J, Medina G, Salas RA. Emergence of a new epidemic/epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in South America.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1995 Jun 6;92(12):5278-81.
                pmc: PMC41677pubmed: 7777497doi: 10.1073/pnas.92.12.5278google scholar: lookup
              20. Scherer WF, Chin J. Responses of guinea pigs to infections with strains of Venezuelan encephalitis virus, and correlations with equine virulence.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1977 Mar;26(2):307-12.
                pubmed: 851494doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1977.26.307google scholar: lookup
              21. Scherer WF, Chin J, Ordonez JV. Further observations on infections of guinea pigs with Venezuelan encephalitis virus strains.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1979 Jul;28(4):725-8.
                pubmed: 464194
              22. Stanick DR, Wiebe ME, Scherer WF. Markers of Venezuelan encephalitis virus which distinguish enzootic strains of subtype I-D from those of I-E.. Am J Epidemiol 1985 Aug;122(2):234-44.
                pubmed: 3893103doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114094google scholar: lookup
              23. Strauss JH, Strauss EG. The alphaviruses: gene expression, replication, and evolution.. Microbiol Rev 1994 Sep;58(3):491-562.
                pmc: PMC372977pubmed: 7968923doi: 10.1128/mr.58.3.491-562.1994google scholar: lookup
              24. Walder R, Suarez OM, Calisher CH. Arbovirus studies in the Guajira region of Venezuela: activities of eastern equine encephalitis and Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses during an interepizootic period.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1984 Jul;33(4):699-707.
                pubmed: 6148023doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1984.33.699google scholar: lookup
              25. Walton TE, Alvarez O Jr, Buckwalter RM, Johnson KM. Experimental infection of horses with enzootic and epizootic strains of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus.. J Infect Dis 1973 Sep;128(3):271-82.
                pubmed: 4728689doi: 10.1093/infdis/128.3.271google scholar: lookup
              26. Walton, T. E., and M. A. Grayson. 1988. Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis, p. 203-231. In T. P. Monath (ed.), The arboviruses: epidemiology and ecology, vol. IV. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla.
              27. Walton TE, Johnson KM. Persistence of neutralizing antibody in Equidae vaccinated with Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis vaccine strain TC-83.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1972 Oct 15;161(8):916-8.
                pubmed: 5074268
              28. Wang E, Barrera R, Boshell J, Ferro C, Freier JE, Navarro JC, Salas R, Vasquez C, Weaver SC. Genetic and phenotypic changes accompanying the emergence of epizootic subtype IC Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses from an enzootic subtype ID progenitor.. J Virol 1999 May;73(5):4266-71.
                pmc: PMC104206pubmed: 10196323doi: 10.1128/jvi.73.5.4266-4271.1999google scholar: lookup
              29. Wang E, Bowen RA, Medina G, Powers AM, Kang W, Chandler LM, Shope RE, Weaver SC. Virulence and viremia characteristics of 1992 epizootic subtype IC Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses and closely related enzootic subtype ID strains.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2001 Jul;65(1):64-9.
                pubmed: 11504410doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2001.65.64google scholar: lookup
              30. Weaver, S. C. 1998. Recurrent emergence of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis, p. 27-42. In W. M. Scheld and J. Hughes (ed.), Emerging infections 1. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
              31. Weaver SC, Anishchenko M, Bowen R, Brault AC, Estrada-Franco JG, Fernandez Z, Greene I, Ortiz D, Paessler S, Powers AM. Genetic determinants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis emergence.. Arch Virol Suppl 2004;(18):43-64.
                pubmed: 15119762doi: 10.1007/978-3-7091-0572-6_5google scholar: lookup
              32. Weaver SC, Bellew LA, Gousset L, Repik PM, Scott TW, Holland JJ. Diversity within natural populations of eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus.. Virology 1993 Aug;195(2):700-9.
                pubmed: 8101674doi: 10.1006/viro.1993.1421google scholar: lookup
              33. Weaver SC, Bellew LA, Rico-Hesse R. Phylogenetic analysis of alphaviruses in the Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex and identification of the source of epizootic viruses.. Virology 1992 Nov;191(1):282-90.
                pubmed: 1413507doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(92)90190-zgoogle scholar: lookup
              34. Weaver SC, Ferro C, Barrera R, Boshell J, Navarro JC. Venezuelan equine encephalitis.. Annu Rev Entomol 2004;49:141-74.
                pubmed: 14651460doi: 10.1146/annurev.ento.49.061802.123422google scholar: lookup
              35. Weaver SC, Pfeffer M, Marriott K, Kang W, Kinney RM. Genetic evidence for the origins of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus subtype IAB outbreaks.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1999 Mar;60(3):441-8.
                pubmed: 10466974doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1999.60.441google scholar: lookup
              36. Weaver SC, Salas R, Rico-Hesse R, Ludwig GV, Oberste MS, Boshell J, Tesh RB. Re-emergence of epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in South America. VEE Study Group.. Lancet 1996 Aug 17;348(9025):436-40.
                pubmed: 8709783doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(96)02275-1google scholar: lookup

              Citations

              This article has been cited 32 times.
              1. Wang H, Liu S, Lv Y, Wei W. Codon usage bias of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus and its host adaption.. Virus Res 2023 Apr 15;328:199081.
                doi: 10.1016/j.virusres.2023.199081pubmed: 36854361google scholar: lookup
              2. León B, González G, Nicoli A, Rojas A, Pizio AD, Ramirez-Carvajal L, Jimenez C. Phylogenetic and Mutation Analysis of the Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Sequence Isolated in Costa Rica from a Mare with Encephalitis.. Vet Sci 2022 May 28;9(6).
                doi: 10.3390/vetsci9060258pubmed: 35737310google scholar: lookup
              3. Behnia M, Baer A, Skidmore AM, Lehman CW, Bracci N, Kehn-Hall K, Bradfute SB. Inactivation of Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Genome Using Two Methods.. Viruses 2022 Jan 28;14(2).
                doi: 10.3390/v14020272pubmed: 35215864google scholar: lookup
              4. Talavera-Aguilar LG, Murrieta RA, Kiem S, Cetina-Trejo RC, Baak-Baak CM, Ebel GD, Blitvich BJ, Machain-Williams C. Infection, dissemination, and transmission efficiencies of Zika virus in Aedes aegypti after serial passage in mosquito or mammalian cell lines or alternating passage in both cell types.. Parasit Vectors 2021 May 18;14(1):261.
                doi: 10.1186/s13071-021-04726-1pubmed: 34006306google scholar: lookup
              5. Carrera JP, Cucunubá ZM, Neira K, Lambert B, Pittí Y, Liscano J, Garzón JL, Beltran D, Collado-Mariscal L, Saenz L, Sosa N, Rodriguez-Guzman LD, González P, Lescano AG, Pereyra-Elías R, Valderrama A, Weaver SC, Vittor AY, Armién B, Pascale JM, Donnelly CA. Endemic and Epidemic Human Alphavirus Infections in Eastern Panama: An Analysis of Population-Based Cross-Sectional Surveys.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2020 Dec;103(6):2429-2437.
                doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.20-0408pubmed: 33124532google scholar: lookup
              6. Carrera JP, Pittí Y, Molares-Martínez JC, Casal E, Pereyra-Elias R, Saenz L, Guerrero I, Galué J, Rodriguez-Alvarez F, Jackman C, Pascale JM, Armien B, Weaver SC, Donnelly CA, Vittor AY. Clinical and Serological Findings of Madariaga and Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Viral Infections: A Follow-up Study 5 Years After an Outbreak in Panama.. Open Forum Infect Dis 2020 Sep;7(9):ofaa359.
                doi: 10.1093/ofid/ofaa359pubmed: 33005697google scholar: lookup
              7. Chapman GE, Sherlock K, Hesson JC, Blagrove MSC, Lycett GJ, Archer D, Solomon T, Baylis M. Laboratory transmission potential of British mosquitoes for equine arboviruses.. Parasit Vectors 2020 Aug 12;13(1):413.
                doi: 10.1186/s13071-020-04285-xpubmed: 32787904google scholar: lookup
              8. Azar SR, Campos RK, Bergren NA, Camargos VN, Rossi SL. Epidemic Alphaviruses: Ecology, Emergence and Outbreaks.. Microorganisms 2020 Aug 1;8(8).
                doi: 10.3390/microorganisms8081167pubmed: 32752150google scholar: lookup
              9. More S, Bøtner A, Butterworth A, Calistri P, Depner K, Edwards S, Garin-Bastuji B, Good M, Gortázar Schmidt C, Michel V, Miranda MA, Nielsen SS, Raj M, Sihvonen L, Spoolder H, Stegeman JA, Thulke HH, Velarde A, Willeberg P, Winckler C, Baldinelli F, Broglia A, Dhollander S, Beltrán-Beck B, Kohnle L, Morgado J, Bicout D. Assessment of listing and categorisation of animal diseases within the framework of the Animal Health Law (Regulation (EU) No 2016/429): Venezuelan equine encephalitis.. EFSA J 2017 Aug;15(8):e04950.
                doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4950pubmed: 32625617google scholar: lookup
              10. Noval MG, Rodriguez-Rodriguez BA, Rangel MV, Stapleford KA. Evolution-Driven Attenuation of Alphaviruses Highlights Key Glycoprotein Determinants Regulating Viral Infectivity and Dissemination.. Cell Rep 2019 Jul 9;28(2):460-471.e5.
                doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.06.022pubmed: 31291581google scholar: lookup
              11. Warmbrod KL, Patterson EI, Kautz TF, Stanton A, Rockx-Brouwer D, Kalveram BK, Khanipov K, Thangamani S, Fofanov Y, Forrester NL. Viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase mutants display an altered mutation spectrum resulting in attenuation in both mosquito and vertebrate hosts.. PLoS Pathog 2019 Apr;15(4):e1007610.
                doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007610pubmed: 30947291google scholar: lookup
              12. Kautz TF, Guerbois M, Khanipov K, Patterson EI, Langsjoen RM, Yun R, Warmbrod KL, Fofanov Y, Weaver SC, Forrester NL. Low-fidelity Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus polymerase mutants to improve live-attenuated vaccine safety and efficacy.. Virus Evol 2018 Jan;4(1):vey004.
                doi: 10.1093/ve/vey004pubmed: 29593882google scholar: lookup
              13. Patterson EI, Khanipov K, Rojas MM, Kautz TF, Rockx-Brouwer D, Golovko G, Albayrak L, Fofanov Y, Forrester NL. Mosquito bottlenecks alter viral mutant swarm in a tissue and time-dependent manner with contraction and expansion of variant positions and diversity.. Virus Evol 2018 Jan;4(1):vey001.
                doi: 10.1093/ve/vey001pubmed: 29479479google scholar: lookup
              14. Forrester NL, Wertheim JO, Dugan VG, Auguste AJ, Lin D, Adams AP, Chen R, Gorchakov R, Leal G, Estrada-Franco JG, Pandya J, Halpin RA, Hari K, Jain R, Stockwell TB, Das SR, Wentworth DE, Smith MD, Kosakovsky Pond SL, Weaver SC. Evolution and spread of Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex alphavirus in the Americas.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017 Aug;11(8):e0005693.
                doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005693pubmed: 28771475google scholar: lookup
              15. Allison AB, Stallknecht DE, Holmes EC. Evolutionary genetics and vector adaptation of recombinant viruses of the western equine encephalitis antigenic complex provides new insights into alphavirus diversity and host switching.. Virology 2015 Jan 1;474:154-62.
                doi: 10.1016/j.virol.2014.10.024pubmed: 25463613google scholar: lookup
              16. Pisano MB, Oria G, Beskow G, Aguilar J, Konigheim B, Cacace ML, Aguirre L, Stein M, Contigiani MS. Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses (VEEV) in Argentina: serological evidence of human infection.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013;7(12):e2551.
                doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002551pubmed: 24349588google scholar: lookup
              17. Rossi SL, Guerbois M, Gorchakov R, Plante KS, Forrester NL, Weaver SC. IRES-based Venezuelan equine encephalitis vaccine candidate elicits protective immunity in mice.. Virology 2013 Mar 15;437(2):81-8.
                doi: 10.1016/j.virol.2012.11.013pubmed: 23351391google scholar: lookup
              18. Forrester NL, Guerbois M, Seymour RL, Spratt H, Weaver SC. Vector-borne transmission imposes a severe bottleneck on an RNA virus population.. PLoS Pathog 2012 Sep;8(9):e1002897.
                doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002897pubmed: 23028310google scholar: lookup
              19. Rose PP, Hanna SL, Spiridigliozzi A, Wannissorn N, Beiting DP, Ross SR, Hardy RW, Bambina SA, Heise MT, Cherry S. Natural resistance-associated macrophage protein is a cellular receptor for sindbis virus in both insect and mammalian hosts.. Cell Host Microbe 2011 Aug 18;10(2):97-104.
                doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2011.06.009pubmed: 21843867google scholar: lookup
              20. Aguilar PV, Estrada-Franco JG, Navarro-Lopez R, Ferro C, Haddow AD, Weaver SC. Endemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in the Americas: hidden under the dengue umbrella.. Future Virol 2011;6(6):721-740.
                doi: 10.2217/FVL.11.5pubmed: 21765860google scholar: lookup
              21. Forrester NL, Guerbois M, Adams AP, Liang X, Weaver SC. Analysis of intrahost variation in Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus reveals repeated deletions in the 6-kilodalton protein gene.. J Virol 2011 Sep;85(17):8709-17.
                doi: 10.1128/JVI.00165-11pubmed: 21715498google scholar: lookup
              22. Pepin KM, Lass S, Pulliam JR, Read AF, Lloyd-Smith JO. Identifying genetic markers of adaptation for surveillance of viral host jumps.. Nat Rev Microbiol 2010 Nov;8(11):802-13.
                doi: 10.1038/nrmicro2440pubmed: 20938453google scholar: lookup
              23. Forshey BM, Guevara C, Laguna-Torres VA, Cespedes M, Vargas J, Gianella A, Vallejo E, Madrid C, Aguayo N, Gotuzzo E, Suarez V, Morales AM, Beingolea L, Reyes N, Perez J, Negrete M, Rocha C, Morrison AC, Russell KL, Blair PJ, Olson JG, Kochel TJ. Arboviral etiologies of acute febrile illnesses in Western South America, 2000-2007.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2010 Aug 10;4(8):e787.
                doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000787pubmed: 20706628google scholar: lookup
              24. Konopka JL, Thompson JM, Whitmore AC, Webb DL, Johnston RE. Acute infection with venezuelan equine encephalitis virus replicon particles catalyzes a systemic antiviral state and protects from lethal virus challenge.. J Virol 2009 Dec;83(23):12432-42.
                doi: 10.1128/JVI.00564-09pubmed: 19793821google scholar: lookup
              25. Simmons JD, White LJ, Morrison TE, Montgomery SA, Whitmore AC, Johnston RE, Heise MT. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus disrupts STAT1 signaling by distinct mechanisms independent of host shutoff.. J Virol 2009 Oct;83(20):10571-81.
                doi: 10.1128/JVI.01041-09pubmed: 19656875google scholar: lookup
              26. Coffey LL, Vasilakis N, Brault AC, Powers AM, Tripet F, Weaver SC. Arbovirus evolution in vivo is constrained by host alternation.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008 May 13;105(19):6970-5.
                doi: 10.1073/pnas.0712130105pubmed: 18458341google scholar: lookup
              27. Aguilar PV, Adams AP, Wang E, Kang W, Carrara AS, Anishchenko M, Frolov I, Weaver SC. Structural and nonstructural protein genome regions of eastern equine encephalitis virus are determinants of interferon sensitivity and murine virulence.. J Virol 2008 May;82(10):4920-30.
                doi: 10.1128/JVI.02514-07pubmed: 18353963google scholar: lookup
              28. Konopka JL, Penalva LO, Thompson JM, White LJ, Beard CW, Keene JD, Johnston RE. A two-phase innate host response to alphavirus infection identified by mRNP-tagging in vivo.. PLoS Pathog 2007 Dec;3(12):e199.
                doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.0030199pubmed: 18215114google scholar: lookup
              29. Wang E, Paessler S, Aguilar PV, Carrara AS, Ni H, Greene IP, Weaver SC. Reverse transcription-PCR-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for rapid detection and differentiation of alphavirus infections.. J Clin Microbiol 2006 Nov;44(11):4000-8.
                doi: 10.1128/JCM.00175-06pubmed: 16957044google scholar: lookup
              30. Weaver SC. Evolutionary influences in arboviral disease.. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2006;299:285-314.
                doi: 10.1007/3-540-26397-7_10pubmed: 16568903google scholar: lookup
              31. Anishchenko M, Bowen RA, Paessler S, Austgen L, Greene IP, Weaver SC. Venezuelan encephalitis emergence mediated by a phylogenetically predicted viral mutation.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006 Mar 28;103(13):4994-9.
                doi: 10.1073/pnas.0509961103pubmed: 16549790google scholar: lookup
              32. Navarro JC, Medina G, Vasquez C, Coffey LL, Wang E, Suárez A, Biord H, Salas M, Weaver SC. Postepizootic persistence of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Venezuela.. Emerg Infect Dis 2005 Dec;11(12):1907-15.
                doi: 10.3201/eid1112.050533pubmed: 16485478google scholar: lookup
              Subscribe to our newsletter
              Join 99,359 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.