FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Veterinary microbiology1997; 56(3-4); 167-176; doi: 10.1016/s0378-1135(97)00085-0

Epidemiology of Rhodococcus equi infections: a review.

Abstract: An overview of epidemiology of R. equi infection in foals is presented, emphasizing the importance of the virulence-associated antigens and plasmids as epidemiological markers. The monoclonal antibody-based colony blot test has been developed to identify rapidly and accurately virulent R. equi. Epidemiological studies conducted during the recent 5 years have revealed that: (1) avirulent R. equi are widespread in the feces of horses and their environment on every farm; (2) the feces of horses and the environment of the horse farms having endemic R. equi infections demonstrated heavy contamination with virulent R. equi, but the farms without the problem did not, thus suggesting that foals bred on a farm with endemic disease are exposed more frequently to virulent R. equi in their environment than those of a farm without the problem; (3) only virulent R. equi are isolated from lesions of naturally infected foals, showing that natural infections in foals are principally by virulent R. equi, but not avirulent organisms; (4) infected foals which constantly shed large quantities of virulent R. equi in their feces are the major source of virulent R. equi, which this may be the mechanism of progressive development of infection on farms with a history of the disease. At present, farms with a potential for endemic infection can be distinguished on the basis of the contamination with virulent R. equi, so regular examination of foals and their environment by virulence markers might be the most practical approach to control R. equi infection on endemic farms.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 1997-06-16 PubMed ID: 9226831DOI: 10.1016/s0378-1135(97)00085-0Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Research Support
  • Non-U.S. Gov't
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This research provides an examination of Rhodococcus equi infection in foals, focusing on the significance of virulence-associated antigens and plasmids as indicators of infection. The study further reveals the prevalent contamination of both equine feces and their environment with virulent R. equi, initiating the infection progress on endemic farms.

Overview of R. equi Infection

  • Rhodococcus equi is a pathogenic bacterium that causes pulmonary disease in foals, imposing a significant health threat on farms.
  • The study emphasizes the importance of virulence-associated antigens and plasmids as epidemiological markers in detecting the bacterium.
  • A monoclonal antibody-based colony blot test was developed for quick and accurate identification of virulent R. equi.

Environmental Prevalence and Contamination

  • Epidemiological studies conducted over a five-year period revealed widespread prevalence of avirulent (non-disease causing) R. equi in the feces of horses and their environment across all farms.
  • Farms with endemic R. equi infections showed heavy contamination of virulent (disease-causing) R. equi in horse feces and the environment.
  • On the other hand, farms without R. equi issues exhibited no such contamination, implying that exposure to virulent R. equi is greatly increased for foals bred on endemic farms.

Natural Infection and Disease Progression

  • Natural R. equi infections in foals were found to be primarily due to virulent strains of the bacterium, not the avirulent ones.
  • Foals that were infected and consistently shed large amounts of virulent R. equi in their feces were identified as a major source of the bacterium, possibly facilitating the progressive development of infection on farms with a history of the disease.

Disease Control and Prevention

  • The study suggests that the presence of virulent R. equi can be used to identify farms with a potential for endemic infection.
  • Regular examination of foals and their environment using virulence markers is proposed as a practical approach to control and prevent R. equi infection on endemic farms.

Cite This Article

APA
Takai S. (1997). Epidemiology of Rhodococcus equi infections: a review. Vet Microbiol, 56(3-4), 167-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-1135(97)00085-0

Publication

Veterinary microbiology
ISSN: 0378-1135
NlmUniqueID: 7705469
Country: Netherlands
Language: English
Volume: 56
Issue: 3-4
Pages: 167-176

Researcher Affiliations

Takai, S
  • Department of Animal Hygiene, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Kitasato University, Aomori, Japan. takai@vmas.kitasato-u.ac.jp

MeSH Terms

  • Actinomycetales Infections / diagnosis
  • Actinomycetales Infections / epidemiology
  • Actinomycetales Infections / veterinary
  • Animals
  • Antigens, Bacterial / analysis
  • Breeding
  • Disease Outbreaks / veterinary
  • Horse Diseases / epidemiology
  • Horses
  • Lymph Nodes / microbiology
  • Plasmids
  • Rhodococcus equi / isolation & purification
  • Rhodococcus equi / pathogenicity
  • Virulence

Citations

This article has been cited 60 times.
  1. Zúñiga MP, Badillo E, Abalos P, Valencia ED, Marín P, Escudero E, Galecio JS. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Rhodococcus equi strains isolated from foals in Chile. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2023 Jun 22;39(9):231.
    doi: 10.1007/s11274-023-03677-2pubmed: 37347336google scholar: lookup
  2. Suzuki Y, Sakaizawa N, Takai S, Kubota H, Hasegawa N, Sasaki Y, Kakuda T. An Autobioluminescent Method for Evaluating In Vitro and In Vivo Growth of Rhodococcus equi. Microbiol Spectr 2022 Jun 29;10(3):e0075822.
    doi: 10.1128/spectrum.00758-22pubmed: 35638814google scholar: lookup
  3. Cohen ND, Flores-Ahlschewde P, Gonzales GM, Kahn SK, da Silveira BP, Bray JM, King EE, Blair CC, Bordin AI. Fecal concentration of Rhodococcus equi determined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction of rectal swab samples to differentiate foals with pneumonia from healthy foals. J Vet Intern Med 2022 May;36(3):1146-1151.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.16438pubmed: 35475581google scholar: lookup
  4. Cohen ND, Kahn SK, Bordin AI, Gonzales GM, da Silveira BP, Bray JM, Legere RM, Ramirez-Cortez SC. Association of pneumonia with concentrations of virulent Rhodococcus equi in fecal swabs of foals before and after intrabronchial infection with virulent R. equi. J Vet Intern Med 2022 May;36(3):1139-1145.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.16409pubmed: 35322902google scholar: lookup
  5. Kahn SK, Cywes-Bentley C, Blodgett GP, Canaday NM, Turner-Garcia CE, Vinacur M, Cortez-Ramirez SC, Sutter PJ, Meyer SC, Bordin AI, Vlock DR, Pier GB, Cohen ND. Antibody activities in hyperimmune plasma against the Rhodococcus equi virulence -associated protein A or poly-N-acetyl glucosamine are associated with protection of foals against rhodococcal pneumonia. PLoS One 2021;16(8):e0250133.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0250133pubmed: 34437551google scholar: lookup
  6. Cohen ND, Kahn SK, Cywes-Bentley C, Ramirez-Cortez S, Schuckert AE, Vinacur M, Bordin AI, Pier GB. Serum Antibody Activity against Poly-N-Acetyl Glucosamine (PNAG), but Not PNAG Vaccination Status, Is Associated with Protecting Newborn Foals against Intrabronchial Infection with Rhodococcus equi. Microbiol Spectr 2021 Sep 3;9(1):e0063821.
    doi: 10.1128/Spectrum.00638-21pubmed: 34319137google scholar: lookup
  7. Aslam MW, Lau SF, Chin CSL, Ahmad NI, Rahman NA, Kuppusamy K, Omar S, Radzi R. Clinicopathological and radiographic features in 40 cats diagnosed with pulmonary and cutaneous Rhodococcus equi infection (2012-2018). J Feline Med Surg 2020 Aug;22(8):774-790.
    doi: 10.1177/1098612X19886395pubmed: 32400257google scholar: lookup
  8. Willingham-Lane JM, Berghaus LJ, Berghaus RD, Hart KA, Giguère S. Effect of Macrolide and Rifampin Resistance on Fitness of Rhodococcus equi during Intramacrophage Replication and In Vivo. Infect Immun 2019 Oct;87(10).
    doi: 10.1128/IAI.00281-19pubmed: 31331959google scholar: lookup
  9. Nakagawa R, Moki H, Hayashi K, Ooniwa K, Tokuyama K, Kakuda T, Yoshioka K, Takai S. A case report on disseminated Rhodococcus equi infection in a Japanese black heifer. J Vet Med Sci 2018 May 18;80(5):819-822.
    doi: 10.1292/jvms.18-0064pubmed: 29593168google scholar: lookup
  10. de Morais ABC, Bolaños CAD, Alves AC, Ikuta CY, Lara GHB, Heinemann MB, Giuffrida R, Listoni FP, de Souza Ribeiro Mioni M, Motta RG, Takai S, Ribeiro MG. Identification of Mycobacterium species and Rhodococcus equi in peccary lymph nodes. Trop Anim Health Prod 2018 Aug;50(6):1319-1326.
    doi: 10.1007/s11250-018-1562-2pubmed: 29546549google scholar: lookup
  11. Wright LM, Carpinone EM, Bennett TL, Hondalus MK, Starai VJ. VapA of Rhodococcus equi binds phosphatidic acid. Mol Microbiol 2018 Feb;107(3):428-444.
    doi: 10.1111/mmi.13892pubmed: 29205554google scholar: lookup
  12. Sangkanjanavanich N, Kawai M, Kakuda T, Takai S. Rescue of an intracellular avirulent Rhodococcus equi replication defect by the extracellular addition of virulence-associated protein A. J Vet Med Sci 2017 Aug 4;79(8):1323-1326.
    doi: 10.1292/jvms.17-0350pubmed: 28690290google scholar: lookup
  13. Olivo G, Lucas TM, Borges AS, Silva RO, Lobato FC, Siqueira AK, da Silva Leite D, Brandão PE, Gregori F, de Oliveira-Filho JP, Takai S, Ribeiro MG. Enteric Pathogens and Coinfections in Foals with and without Diarrhea. Biomed Res Int 2016;2016:1512690.
    doi: 10.1155/2016/1512690pubmed: 28116290google scholar: lookup
  14. Willingham-Lane JM, Berghaus LJ, Giguère S, Hondalus MK. Influence of Plasmid Type on the Replication of Rhodococcus equi in Host Macrophages. mSphere 2016 Sep-Oct;1(5).
    doi: 10.1128/mSphere.00186-16pubmed: 27747295google scholar: lookup
  15. Javed R, Taku AK, Gangil R, Sharma RK. Molecular characterization of virulence genes of Streptococcus equi subsp. equi and Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus in equines. Vet World 2016 Aug;9(8):875-81.
    doi: 10.14202/vetworld.2016.875-881pubmed: 27651677google scholar: lookup
  16. Kalinowski M, Grądzki Z, Jarosz Ł, Kato K, Hieda Y, Kakuda T, Takai S. Plasmid Profiles of Virulent Rhodococcus equi Strains Isolated from Infected Foals in Poland. PLoS One 2016;11(4):e0152887.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0152887pubmed: 27074033google scholar: lookup
  17. Rocha JN, Cohen ND, Bordin AI, Brake CN, Giguère S, Coleman MC, Alaniz RC, Lawhon SD, Mwangi W, Pillai SD. Oral Administration of Electron-Beam Inactivated Rhodococcus equi Failed to Protect Foals against Intrabronchial Infection with Live, Virulent R. equi. PLoS One 2016;11(2):e0148111.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0148111pubmed: 26828865google scholar: lookup
  18. Stefańska I, Witkowski L, Rzewuska M, Dzieciątkowski T. Development and evaluation of the internal-controlled real-time PCR assay for Rhodococcus equi detection in various clinical specimens. J Vet Med Sci 2016 May 3;78(4):543-9.
    doi: 10.1292/jvms.15-0516pubmed: 26655770google scholar: lookup
  19. Shaw SD, Cohen ND, Chaffin MK, Blodgett GP, Syndergaard M, Hurych D. Estimating the Sensitivity and Specificity of Real-Time Quantitative PCR of Fecal Samples for Diagnosis of Rhodococcus equi Pneumonia in Foals. J Vet Intern Med 2015 Nov-Dec;29(6):1712-7.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.13631pubmed: 26436545google scholar: lookup
  20. Whitfield-Cargile CM, Cohen ND, Suchodolski J, Chaffin MK, McQueen CM, Arnold CE, Dowd SE, Blodgett GP. Composition and Diversity of the Fecal Microbiome and Inferred Fecal Metagenome Does Not Predict Subsequent Pneumonia Caused by Rhodococcus equi in Foals. PLoS One 2015;10(8):e0136586.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0136586pubmed: 26305682google scholar: lookup
  21. Kakuda T, Hirota T, Takeuchi T, Hagiuda H, Miyazaki S, Takai S. VirS, an OmpR/PhoB subfamily response regulator, is required for activation of vapA gene expression in Rhodococcus equi. BMC Microbiol 2014 Oct 3;14:243.
    doi: 10.1186/s12866-014-0243-1pubmed: 25281192google scholar: lookup
  22. Bordin AI, Pillai SD, Brake C, Bagley KB, Bourquin JR, Coleman M, Oliveira FN, Mwangi W, McMurray DN, Love CC, Felippe MJ, Cohen ND. Immunogenicity of an electron beam inactivated Rhodococcus equi vaccine in neonatal foals. PLoS One 2014;9(8):e105367.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105367pubmed: 25153708google scholar: lookup
  23. Erganis O, Sayin Z, Hadimli HH, Sakmanoglu A, Pinarkara Y, Ozdemir O, Maden M. The effectiveness of anti-R. equi hyperimmune plasma against R. equi challenge in thoroughbred Arabian foals of mares vaccinated with R. equi vaccine. ScientificWorldJournal 2014;2014:480732.
    doi: 10.1155/2014/480732pubmed: 24982958google scholar: lookup
  24. Fernandes MC, Takai S, Leite DS, Pinto JP, Brandão PE, Santarém VA, Listoni FJ, Da Silva AV, Ribeiro MG. Identification of pathogens and virulence profile of Rhodococcus equi and Escherichia coli strains obtained from sand of parks. Braz J Microbiol 2013;44(2):485-91.
    doi: 10.1590/S1517-83822013005000044pubmed: 24294244google scholar: lookup
  25. Krewer Cda C, Spricigo DA, de Avila Botton S, da Costa MM, Schrank I, de Vargas AC. Molecular characterization of Rhodococcus equi Isolates of horse breeding farms from an endemic region in South of Brazil by multiplex PCR. Braz J Microbiol 2008 Jan;39(1):188-93.
    doi: 10.1590/S1517-838220080001000036pubmed: 24031201google scholar: lookup
  26. Bordin AI, Suchodolski JS, Markel ME, Weaver KB, Steiner JM, Dowd SE, Pillai S, Cohen ND. Effects of administration of live or inactivated virulent Rhodococccus equi and age on the fecal microbiome of neonatal foals. PLoS One 2013;8(6):e66640.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0066640pubmed: 23785508google scholar: lookup
  27. Kachroo P, Ivanov I, Seabury AG, Liu M, Chowdhary BP, Cohen ND. Age-related changes following in vitro stimulation with Rhodococcus equi of peripheral blood leukocytes from neonatal foals. PLoS One 2013;8(5):e62879.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0062879pubmed: 23690962google scholar: lookup
  28. Petrovski S, Seviour RJ, Tillett D. Genome sequence and characterization of a Rhodococcus equi phage REQ1. Virus Genes 2013 Jun;46(3):588-90.
    doi: 10.1007/s11262-013-0887-1pubmed: 23381579google scholar: lookup
  29. Ribeiro MG, Takai S, de Vargas AC, Mattos-Guaraldi AL, Ferreira Camello TC, Ohno R, Okano H, Silva AV. Short report: Identification of virulence-associated plasmids in Rhodococcus equi in humans with and without acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in Brazil. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2011 Sep;85(3):510-3.
    doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2011.10-0695pubmed: 21896813google scholar: lookup
  30. Harris SP, Hines MT, Mealey RH, Alperin DC, Hines SA. Early development of cytotoxic T lymphocytes in neonatal foals following oral inoculation with Rhodococcus equi. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2011 Jun 15;141(3-4):312-6.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2011.03.015pubmed: 21481947google scholar: lookup
  31. Kuskie KR, Smith JL, Wang N, Carter CN, Chaffin MK, Slovis NM, Stepusin RS, Cattoi AE, Takai S, Cohen ND. Effects of location for collection of air samples on a farm and time of day of sample collection on airborne concentrations of virulent Rhodococcus equi at two horse breeding farms. Am J Vet Res 2011 Jan;72(1):73-9.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.72.1.73pubmed: 21194338google scholar: lookup
  32. Poolkhet C, Chumsing S, Wajjwalku W, Minato C, Otsu Y, Takai S. Plasmid Profiles and Prevalence of Intermediately Virulent Rhodococcus equi from Pigs in Nakhonpathom Province, Thailand: Identification of a New Variant of the 70-kb Virulence Plasmid, Type 18. Vet Med Int 2010;2010:491624.
    doi: 10.4061/2010/491624pubmed: 20445784google scholar: lookup
  33. Harris SP, Fujiwara N, Mealey RH, Alperin DC, Naka T, Goda R, Hines SA. Identification of Rhodococcus equi lipids recognized by host cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Microbiology (Reading) 2010 Jun;156(Pt 6):1836-1847.
    doi: 10.1099/mic.0.035915-0pubmed: 20299405google scholar: lookup
  34. Muscatello G, Gilkerson JR, Browning GF. Detection of virulent Rhodococcus equi in exhaled air samples from naturally infected foals. J Clin Microbiol 2009 Mar;47(3):734-7.
    doi: 10.1128/JCM.01395-08pubmed: 19144811google scholar: lookup
  35. Meeuse JJ, Sprenger HG, van Assen S, Leduc D, Daenen SM, Arends JP, van der Werf TS. Rhodococcus equi infection after alemtuzumab therapy for T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia. Emerg Infect Dis 2007 Dec;13(12):1942-3.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1312.061559pubmed: 18258054google scholar: lookup
  36. Muscatello G, Anderson GA, Gilkerson JR, Browning GF. Associations between the ecology of virulent Rhodococcus equi and the epidemiology of R. equi pneumonia on Australian thoroughbred farms. Appl Environ Microbiol 2006 Sep;72(9):6152-60.
    doi: 10.1128/AEM.00495-06pubmed: 16957241google scholar: lookup
  37. Rodríguez-Lázaro D, Lewis DA, Ocampo-Sosa AA, Fogarty U, Makrai L, Navas J, Scortti M, Hernández M, Vázquez-Boland JA. Internally controlled real-time PCR method for quantitative species-specific detection and vapA genotyping of Rhodococcus equi. Appl Environ Microbiol 2006 Jun;72(6):4256-63.
    doi: 10.1128/AEM.02706-05pubmed: 16751540google scholar: lookup
  38. Gabriels P, Joosen H, Put E, Verhaegen J, Magerman K, Cartuyvels R. Recurrent Rhodococcus equi infection with fatal outcome in an immunocompetent patient. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2006 Jan;25(1):46-8.
    doi: 10.1007/s10096-005-0068-9pubmed: 16424975google scholar: lookup
  39. Patton KM, McGuire TC, Hines MT, Mealey RH, Hines SA. Rhodococcus equi-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes in immune horses and development in asymptomatic foals. Infect Immun 2005 Apr;73(4):2083-93.
    doi: 10.1128/IAI.73.4.2083-2093.2005pubmed: 15784549google scholar: lookup
  40. Makrai L, Takayama S, Dénes B, Hajtós I, Sasaki Y, Kakuda T, Tsubaki S, Major A, Fodor L, Varga J, Takai S. Characterization of virulence plasmids and serotyping of rhodococcus equi isolates from submaxillary lymph nodes of pigs in Hungary. J Clin Microbiol 2005 Mar;43(3):1246-50.
    doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.3.1246-1250.2005pubmed: 15750091google scholar: lookup
  41. Patton KM, McGuire TC, Fraser DG, Hines SA. Rhodococcus equi-infected macrophages are recognized and killed by CD8+ T lymphocytes in a major histocompatibility complex class I-unrestricted fashion. Infect Immun 2004 Dec;72(12):7073-83.
    doi: 10.1128/IAI.72.12.7073-7083.2004pubmed: 15557631google scholar: lookup
  42. Horín P, Smola J, Matiasovic J, Vyskocil M, Lukeszová L, Tomanová K, Králík P, Glasnák V, Schröffelová D, Knoll A, Sedlinská M, Krenková L, Jahn P. Polymorphisms in equine immune response genes and their associations with infections. Mamm Genome 2004 Oct;15(10):843-50.
    doi: 10.1007/s00335-004-2356-6pubmed: 15520887google scholar: lookup
  43. Kohler AK, Stone DM, Hines MT, Byrne BA, Alperin DC, Norton LK, Hines SA. Rhodococcus equi secreted antigens are immunogenic and stimulate a type 1 recall response in the lungs of horses immune to R. equi infection. Infect Immun 2003 Nov;71(11):6329-37.
    doi: 10.1128/IAI.71.11.6329-6337.2003pubmed: 14573652google scholar: lookup
  44. Takai S, Martens RJ, Julian A, Garcia Ribeiro M, Rodrigues de Farias M, Sasaki Y, Inuzuka K, Kakuda T, Tsubaki S, Prescott JF. Virulence of Rhodococcus equi isolated from cats and dogs. J Clin Microbiol 2003 Sep;41(9):4468-70.
    doi: 10.1128/JCM.41.9.4468-4470.2003pubmed: 12958297google scholar: lookup
  45. Ashour J, Hondalus MK. Phenotypic mutants of the intracellular actinomycete Rhodococcus equi created by in vivo Himar1 transposon mutagenesis. J Bacteriol 2003 Apr;185(8):2644-52.
    doi: 10.1128/JB.185.8.2644-2652.2003pubmed: 12670990google scholar: lookup
  46. Hines SA, Stone DM, Hines MT, Alperin DC, Knowles DP, Norton LK, Hamilton MJ, Davis WC, McGuire TC. Clearance of virulent but not avirulent Rhodococcus equi from the lungs of adult horses is associated with intracytoplasmic gamma interferon production by CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 2003 Mar;10(2):208-15.
    doi: 10.1128/cdli.10.2.208-215.2003pubmed: 12626444google scholar: lookup
  47. Cuteri V, Takai S, Marenzoni ML, Morgante M, Valente C. Detection of antibodies against Rhodococcus equi in Alpaca (Lama pacos) in Italy. Eur J Epidemiol 2001;17(11):1043-5.
    doi: 10.1023/a:1020006127695pubmed: 12380719google scholar: lookup
  48. Fines M, Pronost S, Maillard K, Taouji S, Leclercq R. Characterization of mutations in the rpoB gene associated with rifampin resistance in Rhodococcus equi isolated from foals. J Clin Microbiol 2001 Aug;39(8):2784-7.
    doi: 10.1128/JCM.39.8.2784-2787.2001pubmed: 11473992google scholar: lookup
  49. Navas J, González-Zorn B, Ladrón N, Garrido P, Vázquez-Boland JA. Identification and mutagenesis by allelic exchange of choE, encoding a cholesterol oxidase from the intracellular pathogen Rhodococcus equi. J Bacteriol 2001 Aug;183(16):4796-805.
    doi: 10.1128/JB.183.16.4796-4805.2001pubmed: 11466283google scholar: lookup
  50. Morton AC, Begg AP, Anderson GA, Takai S, Lämmler C, Browning GF. Epidemiology of Rhodococcus equi strains on Thoroughbred horse farms. Appl Environ Microbiol 2001 May;67(5):2167-75.
    doi: 10.1128/AEM.67.5.2167-2175.2001pubmed: 11319096google scholar: lookup
  51. Vanniasinkam T, Barton MD, Heuzenroeder MW. B-Cell epitope mapping of the VapA protein of Rhodococcus equi: implications for early detection of R. equi disease in foals. J Clin Microbiol 2001 Apr;39(4):1633-7.
    doi: 10.1128/JCM.39.4.1633-1637.2001pubmed: 11283104google scholar: lookup
  52. Takai S, Hines SA, Sekizaki T, Nicholson VM, Alperin DA, Osaki M, Takamatsu D, Nakamura M, Suzuki K, Ogino N, Kakuda T, Dan H, Prescott JF. DNA sequence and comparison of virulence plasmids from Rhodococcus equi ATCC 33701 and 103. Infect Immun 2000 Dec;68(12):6840-7.
    doi: 10.1128/IAI.68.12.6840-6847.2000pubmed: 11083803google scholar: lookup
  53. Takai S, Shoda M, Sasaki Y, Tsubaki S, Fortier G, Pronost S, Rahal K, Becu T, Begg A, Browning G, Nicholson VM, Prescott JF. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms of virulence plasmids in Rhodococcus equi. J Clin Microbiol 1999 Oct;37(10):3417-20.
    doi: 10.1128/JCM.37.10.3417-3420.1999pubmed: 10488224google scholar: lookup
  54. Kasuga-Aoki H, Takai S, Sasaki Y, Tsubaki S, Madarame H, Nakane A. Tumour necrosis factor and interferon-gamma are required in host resistance against virulent Rhodococcus equi infection in mice: cytokine production depends on the virulence levels of R. equi. Immunology 1999 Jan;96(1):122-7.
    doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2567.1999.00657.xpubmed: 10233686google scholar: lookup
  55. Takai S, Yoshida E, Isomura M, Kawakami T, Torii S, Kato S, Takamura Y, Hiraiwa S, Sato R, Takahashi K, Suzuki Y. Rhodococcus equi infection in Japanese Black Cattle in Japan: 12 case reports and literature review. J Vet Med Sci 2025 Dec 3;87(12):1473-1479.
    doi: 10.1292/jvms.25-0323pubmed: 41125391google scholar: lookup
  56. Ganbaatar O, Ganzorig S, Tseren-Ochir EO, Suzuki Y, Takai S. Isolation of vapA-positive Rhodococcus equi from soil and fecal samples in Mongolia. J Vet Med Sci 2025 Oct 1;87(10):1112-1115.
    doi: 10.1292/jvms.25-0267pubmed: 40754416google scholar: lookup
  57. Boneva-Marutsova B, Marutsov P, Kerner K, Zhelev G. First Detection of Rhodococcus equi in a Foal in Bulgaria-A Case Report. Animals (Basel) 2025 Jul 12;15(14).
    doi: 10.3390/ani15142058pubmed: 40723521google scholar: lookup
  58. Mizuguchi Y, Tsuzuki N, Ebana MD, Suzuki Y, Kakuda T. IgG Subtype Response against Virulence-Associated Protein A in Foals Naturally Infected with Rhodococcus equi. Vet Sci 2024 Sep 9;11(9).
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci11090422pubmed: 39330801google scholar: lookup
  59. Li N, Wu C, Cao P, Chen D, Chen F, Shen X. Multiple systemic infections caused by Rhodococcus equi: a case report. Access Microbiol 2024;6(2).
    doi: 10.1099/acmi.0.000600.v4pubmed: 38482363google scholar: lookup
  60. Passamonti F, Lepri E, Coppola G, Sforna M, Casagrande Proietti P, Chiodetti I, Coletti M, Marenzoni ML. Pulmonary rhodococcosis in a cat. J Feline Med Surg 2011 Apr;13(4):283-5.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jfms.2010.12.003pubmed: 21273105google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,850 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.