FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Animals (Basel) / Growth and Bone Development in the Horse: When Is a Horse Sk...
Animals : an open access journal from MDPI2021; 11(12); 3402; doi: 10.3390/ani11123402

Growth and Bone Development in the Horse: When Is a Horse Skeletally Mature?

Abstract: Within the lay literature, and social media in particular, there is often debate about the age at which a horse should be started and introduced to racing or sport. To optimize the welfare and longevity of horses in racing and sport, it is important to match exercise with musculoskeletal development and the ability of the musculoskeletal system to respond to loading. The justification for not exercising horses at a certain age is often in contrast to the scientific literature and framed, with incorrect generalizations, with human growth. This review provides a relative comparison of the growth and development of the horse to the descriptors used to define growth and development in humans. Measures of physeal closure and somatic growth demonstrate that the horse completes the equivalent of rapid infant growth by weaning (4-6 months old). At approximately 11 months old, the horse completes the equivalent of the childhood phase of growth and enters puberty. At 2 years old, the horse has achieved most measures of maturity used within the human literature, including the plateauing of vertical height, closure of growth plates, and adult ratios of back length:wither height and limb length:wither height. These data support the hypothesis that the horse evolved to be a precocious cursorial grazer and is capable of athletic activity, and use in sport, relatively early in life.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2021-11-29 PubMed ID: 34944179PubMed Central: PMC8698045DOI: 10.3390/ani11123402Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This research article investigates the optimal age for horses to start intensive training or racing, by comparing the growth and development stages of horses to those of humans. It suggests that horses reach physical maturity earlier than is often assumed, with rapid growth completed by weaning, and most measures of maturity reached by age two.

Growth and Development Comparison between Horses and Humans

The study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the growth and development of horses, comparing these processes to corresponding stages in human development. The researchers do this by

  • Measuring the closure of growth plates in horses, which indicates the completion of growth and skeletal maturation
  • Examining somatic (body) growth of horses, which provides insight into overall body development
  • Comparing these findings with data on human growth and development

Growth Stages in Horses

The research findings detail distinct stages in a horse’s growth.

  • The rapid growth stage, equivalent to infancy in humans, is completed by weaning, which typically occurs when the horse is between four and six months old
  • The childhood phase ends at approximately 11 months, at which point the horse enters puberty
  • By the age of two, the horse has achieved most of the developmental milestones commonly used within human literature

Maturity Milestones

The researchers also outlined major maturity milestones for horses such as:

  • The plateauing of height, which corresponds to the completion of vertical growth
  • The closure of growth plates, indicating skeletal maturity
  • The attainment of adult ratios of back length to wither height, and limb length to wither height

Implications for Training Horses

The research suggests that horses become physically mature earlier than is often assumed within horse racing and sport circles. The findings imply that horses are physiologically ready for athletic activity and use in sport relatively early in life. The study thereby challenges the common notion that training should only begin at a later age, arguing for a greater alignment of training periods with the natural growth and development stages of horses.

Cite This Article

APA
Rogers CW, Gee EK, Dittmer KE. (2021). Growth and Bone Development in the Horse: When Is a Horse Skeletally Mature? Animals (Basel), 11(12), 3402. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11123402

Publication

Animals : an open access journal from MDPI
ISSN: 2076-2615
NlmUniqueID: 101635614
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 11
Issue: 12
PII: 3402

Researcher Affiliations

Rogers, Chris W
  • School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand.
  • School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand.
Gee, Erica K
  • School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand.
Dittmer, Keren E
  • School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand.

Conflict of Interest Statement

C.W.R. is Editor in chief, equids section, but was blinded from the review process.

References

This article includes 55 references
  1. Rogers CW, Bolwell CF, Gee EK, Rosanowski SM. Equine musculoskeletal development and performance: Impact of the production system and early training.. Anim. Prod. Sci. 2020;60:2069–2079.
    doi: 10.1071/AN17685google scholar: lookup
  2. Rogers CW, Dittmer KE. Does Juvenile Play Programme the Equine Musculoskeletal System?. Animals (Basel) 2019 Sep 3;9(9).
    doi: 10.3390/ani9090646pmc: PMC6770595pubmed: 31484397google scholar: lookup
  3. Tanner JC, Rogers CW, Firth EC. The association of 2-year-old training milestones with career length and racing success in a sample of Thoroughbred horses in New Zealand.. Equine Vet J 2013 Jan;45(1):20-4.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2011.00534.xpubmed: 22320408google scholar: lookup
  4. Rogers CW, Firth EC, McIlwraith CW, Barneveld A, Goodship AE, Kawcak CE, Smith RK, van Weeren PR. Evaluation of a new strategy to modulate skeletal development in racehorses by imposing track-based exercise during growth: the effects on 2- and 3-year-old racing careers.. Equine Vet J 2008 Mar;40(2):119-27.
    doi: 10.2746/042516408X266088pubmed: 18093893google scholar: lookup
  5. Rogers CW, Firth EC, McIlwraith CW, Barneveld A, Goodship AE, Kawcak CE, Smith RK, van Weeren PR. Evaluation of a new strategy to modulate skeletal development in Thoroughbred performance horses by imposing track-based exercise during growth.. Equine Vet J 2008 Mar;40(2):111-8.
    doi: 10.2746/042516408X268923pubmed: 18093894google scholar: lookup
  6. Velie BD, Knight PK, Thomson PC, Wade CM, Hamilton NA. The association of age at first start with career length in the Australian Thoroughbred racehorse population.. Equine Vet J 2013 Jul;45(4):410-3.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2012.00651.xpubmed: 23009388google scholar: lookup
  7. Kocher A, Staniar WB. The pattern of thoroughbred growth is affected by a foals birthdate.. Livest. Sci. 2013;154:204–214.
    doi: 10.1016/j.livsci.2013.03.008google scholar: lookup
  8. Sanders JO, Qiu X, Lu X, Duren DL, Liu RW, Dang D, Menendez ME, Hans SD, Weber DR, Cooperman DR. The Uniform Pattern of Growth and Skeletal Maturation during the Human Adolescent Growth Spurt.. Sci Rep 2017 Dec 1;7(1):16705.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-16996-wpmc: PMC5711808pubmed: 29196711google scholar: lookup
  9. Hampson BA, Pollit CC. GPS analysis of activity of domestic mares and newborn foals. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Equine Locomotion; Cabourg, France. 16–19 June 2008; p. 17.
  10. Strand E, Braathen LC, Hellsten MC, Huse-Olsen L, Bjornsdottir S. Radiographic closure time of appendicular growth plates in the Icelandic horse.. Acta Vet Scand 2007 Jul 17;49(1):19.
    doi: 10.1186/1751-0147-49-19pmc: PMC1950711pubmed: 17640333google scholar: lookup
  11. Salhotra A, Shah HN, Levi B, Longaker MT. Mechanisms of bone development and repair.. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2020 Nov;21(11):696-711.
    doi: 10.1038/s41580-020-00279-wpmc: PMC7699981pubmed: 32901139google scholar: lookup
  12. Craig LE, Dittmer KE, Thompson KG. Bones and Joints. In: Maxie G., editor. Jubb, Kennedy, and Palmer’s Pathology of Domestic Animals. 6th ed. Academic Press; Cambridge, MA, USA: 2016. pp. 16–163.
  13. Williams S, Alkhatib B, Serra R. Development of the axial skeleton and intervertebral disc.. Curr Top Dev Biol 2019;133:49-90.
    pmc: PMC6800124pubmed: 30902259doi: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2018.11.018google scholar: lookup
  14. Prakash, Prabhu LV, Saralaya VV, Pai MM, Ranade AV, Singh G, Madhyastha S. Vertebral body integrity: a review of various anatomical factors involved in the lumbar region.. Osteoporos Int 2007 Jul;18(7):891-903.
    pubmed: 17404781doi: 10.1007/s00198-007-0373-5google scholar: lookup
  15. Knipe H, Chmiel-Nowak M. Ossification centers of the vertebral column. Radiopaedia 2021.
    doi: 10.53347/rID-24695google scholar: lookup
  16. Wojtków M, Głowacki M, Pezowicz C. Multiscale structural characterization of the vertebral endplate in animal models.. J Anat 2021 Jul;239(1):70-80.
    doi: 10.1111/joa.13402pmc: PMC8197957pubmed: 33521970google scholar: lookup
  17. BICK EM, COPEL JW. Longitudinal growth of the human vertebra; a contribution to human osteogeny.. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1950 Oct;32 A(4):803-14.
    doi: 10.2106/00004623-195032040-00008pubmed: 14784489google scholar: lookup
  18. Frost HM. Bone "mass" and the "mechanostat": a proposal.. Anat Rec 1987 Sep;219(1):1-9.
    doi: 10.1002/ar.1092190104pubmed: 3688455google scholar: lookup
  19. Frost HM. The Utah paradigm of skeletal physiology: an overview of its insights for bone, cartilage and collagenous tissue organs.. J Bone Miner Metab 2000;18(6):305-16.
    doi: 10.1007/s007740070001pubmed: 11052462google scholar: lookup
  20. Matkovic V, Jelic T, Wardlaw GM, Ilich JZ, Goel PK, Wright JK, Andon MB, Smith KT, Heaney RP. Timing of peak bone mass in Caucasian females and its implication for the prevention of osteoporosis. Inference from a cross-sectional model.. J Clin Invest 1994 Feb;93(2):799-808.
    doi: 10.1172/JCI117034pmc: PMC293933pubmed: 8113412google scholar: lookup
  21. Beck-Nielsen SS, Greggio NA, Hagenäs L. Defining a Growing and Maturing Skeleton and its Relevance in Diseases that Affect Skeletal Growth, Such as X-Linked Hypophosphataemia (XLH). Int. J. Rare Dis. Disord. 2021;4:13.
    doi: 10.23937/2643-4571/1710029google scholar: lookup
  22. Hawkes CP, Mostoufi-Moab S, McCormack SE, Grimberg A, Zemel BS. Sitting Height to Standing Height Ratio Reference Charts for Children in the United States.. J Pediatr 2020 Nov;226:221-227.e15.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.06.051pubmed: 32579888google scholar: lookup
  23. Dallora AL, Anderberg P, Kvist O, Mendes E, Diaz Ruiz S, Sanmartin Berglund J. Bone age assessment with various machine learning techniques: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis.. PLoS One 2019;14(7):e0220242.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0220242pmc: PMC6657881pubmed: 31344143google scholar: lookup
  24. Cameron N. Can maturity indicators be used to estimate chronological age in children?. Ann Hum Biol 2015;42(4):302-7.
    doi: 10.3109/03014460.2015.1032349pubmed: 26073641google scholar: lookup
  25. Fredriks AM, van Buuren S, van Heel WJ, Dijkman-Neerincx RH, Verloove-Vanhorick SP, Wit JM. Nationwide age references for sitting height, leg length, and sitting height/height ratio, and their diagnostic value for disproportionate growth disorders.. Arch Dis Child 2005 Aug;90(8):807-12.
    doi: 10.1136/adc.2004.050799pmc: PMC1720514pubmed: 15863466google scholar: lookup
  26. Huntington PJ, Brown-Douglas CG, Pagan JD. Growth and development of Thoroughbred horses. Anim. Prod. Sci. 2020;60:2093–2102.
    doi: 10.1071/AN19629google scholar: lookup
  27. Brown-Douglas CG, Firth EC, Parkinson TJ, Fennessy PF. Onset of puberty in pasture-raised Thoroughbreds born in southern hemisphere spring and autumn.. Equine Vet J 2004 Sep;36(6):499-504.
    doi: 10.2746/0425164044877422pubmed: 15460074google scholar: lookup
  28. van Weeren PR, Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Ooste, Barneveld A. The influence of birth weight, rate of weight gain and final achieved height and sex on the development of osteochondrotic lesions in a population of genetically predisposed Warmblood foals.. Equine Vet J Suppl 1999 Nov;(31):26-30.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05310.xpubmed: 10999657google scholar: lookup
  29. Valette JP, Robert C, Denoix JM. Use of linear and non-linear functions to describe the growth of young sport- and race-horses born in Normandy.. Animal 2008 Apr;2(4):560-5.
    doi: 10.1017/S1751731107001462pubmed: 22443570google scholar: lookup
  30. Peugnet P, Mendoza L, Wimel L, Duchamp G, Dubois C, Reigner F, Caudron I, Deliège B, Toquet M-P, Richard E. Longitudinal study of growth and osteoarticular status in foals born to between-breed embryo transfers. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2016;37:24–38.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2015.11.008google scholar: lookup
  31. Ellis RN, Lawrence TL. Energy under-nutrition in the weanling filly foal. II. Effects on body conformation and epiphyseal plate closure in the fore-limb.. Br Vet J 1978 Jul-Aug;134(4):321-32.
    doi: 10.1016/S0007-1935(17)33434-6pubmed: 678961google scholar: lookup
  32. Franco D, Crecente S, Vázquez JA, Gómez M, Lorenzo JM. Effect of cross breeding and amount of finishing diet on growth parameters, carcass and meat composition of foals slaughtered at 15 months of age.. Meat Sci 2013 Mar;93(3):547-56.
    doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2012.11.018pubmed: 23273463google scholar: lookup
  33. McManus CM, Louvandini H, Campos VAL. Non linear growth curves for weight and height in four genetic groups of horses. Ciência Anim. Bras. 2010;11.
  34. Lovsin E, Fazarinc G, Pogacnik A, Bavdek SV. Growth dynamics of lipizzan horses and their comparison to other horse breeds.. Pflugers Arch 2001;442(6 Suppl 1):R211-2.
    doi: 10.1007/s004240100029pubmed: 11678344google scholar: lookup
  35. Veraa S, Scheffer CJW, Smeets DHM, de Bruin RB, Hoogendoorn AC, Vernooij JCM, Nielen M, Back W. Cervical disc width index is a reliable parameter and consistent in young growing Dutch Warmblood horses.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2020 Oct 13;62(1):11-9.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12913pmc: PMC7894175pubmed: 33090577google scholar: lookup
  36. Hasler C, Sprecher CM, Milz S. Comparison of the immature sheep spine and the growing human spine: a spondylometric database for growth modulating research.. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2010 Nov 1;35(23):E1262-72.
    doi: 10.1097/BRS.0b013e3181e24196pubmed: 20938392google scholar: lookup
  37. Thompson KN. Skeletal growth rates of weanling and yearling thoroughbred horses.. J Anim Sci 1995 Sep;73(9):2513-7.
    doi: 10.2527/1995.7392513xpubmed: 8582838google scholar: lookup
  38. Butler JA, Colles CM, Dyson S, Kold S, Poulos P. Clinical Radiology of the Horse. Blackwell Scientific Publications Ltd.; Oxford, UK: 1993.
  39. Firth EC, Rogers CW, van Weeren PR, Barneveld A, McIlwraith CW, Kawcak CE, Goodship AE, Smith RK. The effect of previous conditioning exercise on diaphyseal and metaphyseal bone to imposition and withdrawal of training in young Thoroughbred horses.. Vet J 2012 Apr;192(1):34-40.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.05.016pubmed: 21855374google scholar: lookup
  40. Fretz PB, Cymbaluk NF, Pharr JW. Quantitative analysis of long-bone growth in the horse.. Am J Vet Res 1984 Aug;45(8):1602-9.
    pubmed: 6476573
  41. Vulcano LC, Mamprim MJ, Muniz LM, Moreira AF, Luna SP. Radiographic study of distal radial physeal closure in thoroughbred horses.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 1997 Sep-Oct;38(5):352-4.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.1997.tb02096.xpubmed: 9335091google scholar: lookup
  42. Yoshida K, Ueda Y, Masumitsu H. Radiographical studies on ossification in the thoroughbred 2. Closure process in the distal epiphyseal lines of the radius and the 3rd metacarpal bone and the proximal epiphyseal line of the proximal phalanx, and an assessment system of bone maturity. Bull. Equine Res. Inst. 1982;1982:18–29.
  43. Banks WC. Radiography of the tuber calcis and its use in thoroughbred training.. Acta Radiol Suppl 1972;319:71-2.
    doi: 10.3109/05678067209173996pubmed: 4531210google scholar: lookup
  44. Łuszczyński J, Pieszka M, Kosiniak-Kamysz K. Effect of horse breed and sex on growth rate and radiographic closure time of distal radial metaphyseal growth plate. Livest. Sci. 2011;141:252–258.
    doi: 10.1016/j.livsci.2011.06.009google scholar: lookup
  45. Gabel AA, Spencer CP, Pipers FS. A study of correlation of closure of the distal radial physis with performance and injury in the Standardbred.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1977 Jan 15;170(2):188-94.
    pubmed: 833043
  46. Uhlhorn H, Eksell P, Carlsten J. Scintigraphic characterization of distal radial physeal closure in young Standardbred racehorses.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2000 Mar-Apr;41(2):181-6.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2000.tb01475.xpubmed: 10779081google scholar: lookup
  47. Pezzoli G, Del Bue M. [Radiographic evaluation of skeletal development in trotting horses in relation to their athletic activity (author's transl)].. Folia Vet Lat 1975 Jul-Sep;5(3):399-411.
    pubmed: 1218852
  48. Pasolini M, Meomartino L, Testa A, Fatone G, Potena A, Rosa GD, Lamagna F. Radiographic assessment of skeletal maturity in the racehorse: Statistical validation and correlation with orthopaedic injuries in the Standardbred. Ippologia 2007;18:15–19.
  49. Myers V Jr, Emmerson M. The Age and Manner of Epiphyseal Closure in the Forelegs of Two Arabian Foals 1. Vet. Radiol. 1966;7:39–47.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.1966.tb01062.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  50. Mamprim M, Vulcano L, Muniz L. Estudo radiográfico do fechamento da epífise distal da rádio em potras de raça Manga-Larga (Radiographic study of distal radius epiphyseal closure in Manga-Larga fillies.). Vet. Zoot. 1992;4:59–62.
  51. Koskinen E, Katila T. Effect of 19-norandrostenololylaurate on serum testosterone concentration, libido, and closure of distal radial growth plate in colts.. Acta Vet Scand 1997;38(1):59-67.
    doi: 10.1186/BF03548508pmc: PMC8057044pubmed: 9129347google scholar: lookup
  52. Tuchman S, Thayu M, Shults J, Zemel BS, Burnham JM, Leonard MB. Interpretation of biomarkers of bone metabolism in children: impact of growth velocity and body size in healthy children and chronic disease.. J Pediatr 2008 Oct;153(4):484-90.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.04.028pmc: PMC2683408pubmed: 18555484google scholar: lookup
  53. Monjardino T, Silva P, Amaro J, Carvalho O, Guimarães JT, Santos AC, Lucas R. Bone formation and resorption markers at 7 years of age: Relations with growth and bone mineralization.. PLoS One 2019;14(8):e0219423.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219423pmc: PMC6705799pubmed: 31437153google scholar: lookup
  54. Cadogan J, Blumsohn A, Barker ME, Eastell R. A longitudinal study of bone gain in pubertal girls: anthropometric and biochemical correlates.. J Bone Miner Res 1998 Oct;13(10):1602-12.
    doi: 10.1359/jbmr.1998.13.10.1602pubmed: 9783549google scholar: lookup
  55. Terpstra L, Knol DL, Van Coeverden SC, Delemarre-van de Waal HA. Bone metabolism markers predict increase in bone mass, height and sitting height during puberty depending on the VDR Fok1 genotype.. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2006 Jun;64(6):625-31.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2265.2006.02516.xpubmed: 16712663google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 12 times.
  1. Nocera I, Sorvillo B, Sgorbini M, Aliboni B, Citi S. Radiographic Appearance of the Fore Digit and Carpal Joint in the Mule Foal from Birth to 3 Months of Age. Animals (Basel) 2023 Jul 26;13(15).
    doi: 10.3390/ani13152417pubmed: 37570226google scholar: lookup
  2. Lee J, Kang YJ, Kim YK, Choi JY, Shin SM, Shin MC. Exploring the Influence of Growth-Associated Host Genetics on the Initial Gut Microbiota in Horses. Genes (Basel) 2023 Jun 27;14(7).
    doi: 10.3390/genes14071354pubmed: 37510259google scholar: lookup
  3. Siegers E, van den Broek J, Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan M, Munsters C. Longitudinal Training and Workload Assessment in Young Friesian Stallions in Relation to Fitness, Part 2-An Adapted Training Program. Animals (Basel) 2023 Feb 14;13(4).
    doi: 10.3390/ani13040658pubmed: 36830445google scholar: lookup
  4. Sundby AE, Pechette Markley A, Shoben AB, Kieves NR. Internet Survey Evaluation of Demographic Risk Factors for Injury in Canine Agility Athletes. Front Vet Sci 2022;9:869702.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.869702pubmed: 35464366google scholar: lookup
  5. Sharma M, Singh A, Kumar V, Olla N, Arora R, Sharma R, Mohan NH, Ahlawat S. Advances in Equine Genomics: Decoding the Genetic Architecture of Morphology, Performance, Behavior, and Adaptation. Mol Biotechnol 2025 Dec 19;.
    doi: 10.1007/s12033-025-01544-zpubmed: 41417456google scholar: lookup
  6. Schneider MA, Gilmour RJ. Continued Metacarpal Cortical Bone Growth in Mid to Late Adolescence: A Longitudinal Study of Cortical Bone Acquisition in a Documented Sample of 16- to 20-Year-Olds. Am J Biol Anthropol 2025 Dec;188(4):e70186.
    doi: 10.1002/ajpa.70186pubmed: 41409032google scholar: lookup
  7. Kim BK, Eo SH. Factors determining the survival or mortality of Nyctereutes procyonoides (Canidae) rescued by a wildlife rescue centre: Is urbanisation a threat to wildlife?. Biodivers Data J 2025;13:e163708.
    doi: 10.3897/BDJ.13.e163708pubmed: 41098974google scholar: lookup
  8. Schild CO, Nyaoke A, Asin J, Henderson EE, Blea JA, Stover SM, Uzal FA. A retrospective study of radial fractures in racehorses in California, 2006-2022. J Vet Diagn Invest 2025 Jul 23;:10406387251336267.
    doi: 10.1177/10406387251336267pubmed: 40702641google scholar: lookup
  9. Conrad MB, Leatherwood JL, Paris BL, George JM, Martinez RE, Vergara-Hernandez FB, Nielsen BD, Colbath AC, Arnold CE, Glass KG, Welsh TH Jr, Bradbery AN. Effects of clodronate disodium on endocrine regulators of calcium in yearling horses. J Anim Sci 2025 Jan 4;103.
    doi: 10.1093/jas/skaf132pubmed: 40259552google scholar: lookup
  10. Bercy A, Ceacero F, Komárková M. Antipredator behaviour in semi-feral horses: innate response and the influence of external factors. Anim Cogn 2025 Feb 4;28(1):8.
    doi: 10.1007/s10071-025-01933-6pubmed: 39903312google scholar: lookup
  11. Asahi Y, Arai T, Tanaka Y. Changes in plasma metabolite concentrations and enzyme activities in aging riding horses. Front Vet Sci 2024;11:1345548.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1345548pubmed: 38881783google scholar: lookup
  12. Benedetti B, Freccero F, Barton J, Elmallah F, Refat S, Padalino B. A Retrospective Study on the Status of Working Equids Admitted to an Equine Clinic in Cairo: Disease Prevalence and Associations between Physical Parameters and Outcome. Animals (Basel) 2024 Mar 6;14(5).
    doi: 10.3390/ani14050817pubmed: 38473201google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,357 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.