FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Animals : an open access journal from MDPI2020; 10(11); doi: 10.3390/ani10112155

Identification of Body Behaviors and Facial Expressions Associated with Induced Orthopedic Pain in Four Equine Pain Scales.

Abstract: Equine orthopedic pain scales are targeted towards horses with moderate to severe orthopedic pain. Improved assessment of pain behavior and pain-related facial expressions at rest may refine orthopedic pain detection for mild lameness grades. Therefore, this study explored pain-related behaviors and facial expressions and sought to identify frequently occurring combinations. Orthopedic pain was induced by intra-articular LPS in eight horses, and objective movement asymmetry analyses were performed before and after induction together with pain assessments at rest. Three observers independently assessed horses in their box stalls, using four equine pain scales simultaneously. Increase in movement asymmetry after induction was used as a proxy for pain. Behaviors and facial expressions commonly co-occurred and were strongly associated with movement asymmetry. Posture-related scale items were the strongest predictors of movement asymmetry. Display of facial expressions at rest varied between horses but, when present, were strongly associated with movement asymmetry. Reliability of facial expression items was lower than reliability of behavioral items. These findings suggest that five body behaviors (posture, head position, location in the box stall, focus, and interactive behavior) should be included in a scale for live assessment of mild orthopedic pain. We also recommend inclusion of facial expressions in pain assessment.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2020-11-19 PubMed ID: 33228117PubMed Central: PMC7699379DOI: 10.3390/ani10112155Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research study focuses on identifying body behaviors and facial expressions in horses that are associated with induced orthopedic pain. It discusses the application of four equine pain scales and recommends their refinement for the detection of mild lameness grades.

Research Methodology

  • The research was carried out on eight horses, in which, orthopedic pain was triggered using intra-articular LPS, a technique commonly used to simulate joint disorders in animals.
  • Before and after the induction of pain, the horses’ movement asymmetry was objectively analyzed. This technique provided a baseline to compare behavioral changes linked to pain experience.
  • The horses were observed separately in their box stalls by three independent evaluators. These evaluators simultaneously employed four equine pain scales for their assessments.
  • Increased movement asymmetry post-induction was marked as an indicator of pain.

Research Findings

  • It was discovered that certain behaviors and facial expressions commonly co-occurred and were strongly associated with movement asymmetry (a proxy for pain).
  • The items related to posture in these pain scales were the most effective predictors of movement asymmetry.
  • The display of facial expressions at rest varied among the horses but was strongly correlated with movement asymmetry when evident.
  • However, the reliability of facial expression items was found to be lower than the reliability of behavioral items in indicating pain.

Recommendations and Conclusion

  • From the study, it was suggested that five body behaviors – posture, head position, location in the box stall, focus, and interactive behavior – must be included in a pain assessment scale for real-time evaluation of mild orthopedic pain.
  • The researchers also propose including facial expressions in pain assessments, to enhance the effectiveness of the scales.

The research contributes to improving the assessment methods for equine orthopedic pain, drawing attention to the significance of behavioral indicators and facial expressions.

Cite This Article

APA
Ask K, Rhodin M, Tamminen LM, Hernlund E, Haubro Andersen P. (2020). Identification of Body Behaviors and Facial Expressions Associated with Induced Orthopedic Pain in Four Equine Pain Scales. Animals (Basel), 10(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10112155

Publication

Animals : an open access journal from MDPI
ISSN: 2076-2615
NlmUniqueID: 101635614
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 10
Issue: 11

Researcher Affiliations

Ask, Katrina
  • Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7011, 75007 Uppsala, Sweden.
Rhodin, Marie
  • Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7011, 75007 Uppsala, Sweden.
Tamminen, Lena-Mari
  • Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7054, 75007 Uppsala, Sweden.
Hernlund, Elin
  • Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7011, 75007 Uppsala, Sweden.
Haubro Andersen, Pia
  • Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7054, 75007 Uppsala, Sweden.

Grant Funding

  • 2016-01760 (MR) / Svenska Forskningsrådet Formas

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

References

This article includes 51 references
  1. Ashley FH, Waterman-Pearson AE, Whay HR. Behavioural assessment of pain in horses and donkeys: Application to clinical practice and future studies.. Equine Vet. J. 2005;37:565–575.
    doi: 10.2746/042516405775314826pubmed: 16295937google scholar: lookup
  2. Wagner AE. Effects of Stress on Pain in Horses and Incorporating Pain Scales for Equine Practice.. Vet. Clin. Equine Pract. 2010;26:481–492.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2010.07.001pubmed: 21056295google scholar: lookup
  3. Hausberger M, Fureix C, Lesimple C. Detecting horses’ sickness: In search of visible signs.. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2016;175:41–49.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2015.09.005google scholar: lookup
  4. Dalla Costa E, Minero M, Lebelt D, Stucke D, Canali E, Leach MC. Development of the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS) as a pain assessment tool in horses undergoing routine castration.. PLoS ONE 2014;9:1–10.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0092281pmc: PMC3960217pubmed: 24647606google scholar: lookup
  5. van Loon JPAM, van Dierendonck MC. Monitoring acute equine visceral pain with the Equine Utrecht University Scale for Composite Pain Assessment (EQUUS-COMPASS) and the Equine Utrecht University Scale for Facial Assessment of Pain (EQUUS-FAP): A scale-constructive study.. Vet. J. 2015;206:356–364.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2015.08.023pubmed: 26526526google scholar: lookup
  6. van Dierendonck MC, van Loon JPAM. Monitoring acute equine visceral pain with the Equine Utrecht University Scale for Composite Pain Assessment (EQUUS-COMPASS) and the Equine Utrecht University Scale for Facial Assessment of Pain (EQUUS-FAP): A validation study.. Vet. J. 2016;216:175–177.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2016.08.004pubmed: 27687948google scholar: lookup
  7. Gleerup KB, Forkman B, Lindegaard C, Andersen PH. An equine pain face.. Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 2015;42:103–114.
    doi: 10.1111/vaa.12212pmc: PMC4312484pubmed: 25082060google scholar: lookup
  8. Ijichi C, Collins LM, Elwood RW. Pain expression is linked to personality in horses.. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2014;152:38–43.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2013.12.007google scholar: lookup
  9. Taylor PM, Pascoe PJ, Mama KR. Diagnosing and treating pain in the horse. Where are we today?. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 2002;18:1–19.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(02)00009-3pubmed: 12064173google scholar: lookup
  10. McLennan KM, Miller AL, Dalla Costa E, Stucke D, Corke MJ, Broom DM, Leach MC. Conceptual and methodological issues relating to pain assessment in mammals: The development and utilisation of pain facial expression scales.. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2019;217:1–15.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2019.06.001google scholar: lookup
  11. De Vet HCW, Terwee CB, Mokkink LB, Knol DL. Measurement in Medicine.. Cambridge University Press; Cambridge, UK: 2011.
  12. Bussières G, Jacques C, Lainay O, Beauchamp G, Leblond A, Cadoré JL, Desmaizières LM, Cuvelliez SG, Troncy E. Development of a composite orthopaedic pain scale in horses.. Res. Vet. Sci. 2008;85:294–306.
    doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2007.10.011pubmed: 18061637google scholar: lookup
  13. Dalla Costa E, Stucke D, Dai F, Minero M, Leach MC, Lebelt D. Using the horse grimace scale (HGS) to assess pain associated with acute laminitis in horses (Equus caballus). Animals 2016;6:47.
    doi: 10.3390/ani6080047pmc: PMC4997272pubmed: 27527224google scholar: lookup
  14. van Loon JPAM, Van Dierendonck MC. Pain assessment in horses after orthopaedic surgery and with orthopaedic trauma.. Vet. J. 2019;246:85–91.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2019.02.001pubmed: 30902195google scholar: lookup
  15. Iijima H, Eguchi R, Aoyama T, Takahashi M. Trunk movement asymmetry associated with pain, disability, and quadriceps strength asymmetry in individuals with knee osteoarthritis: A cross-sectional study.. Osteoarthr. Cartil. 2019;27:248–256.
    doi: 10.1016/j.joca.2018.10.012pubmed: 30445222google scholar: lookup
  16. Dickey JP, Pierrynowski MR, Bednar DA, Yang SX. Relationship between pain and vertebral motion in chronic low-back pain subjects.. Clin. Biomech. 2002;17:345–352.
    doi: 10.1016/S0268-0033(02)00032-3pubmed: 12084538google scholar: lookup
  17. Papi E, Bull AMJ, McGregor AH. Is there evidence to use kinematic/kinetic measures clinically in low back pain patients? A systematic review.. Clin. Biomech. 2018;55:53–64.
    doi: 10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2018.04.006pmc: PMC6161016pubmed: 29684790google scholar: lookup
  18. Astephen Wilson JL, Deluzio KJ, Dunbar MJ, Caldwell GE, Hubley-Kozey CL. The association between knee joint biomechanics and neuromuscular control and moderate knee osteoarthritis radiographic and pain severity.. Osteoarthr. Cartil. 2011;19:186–193.
    doi: 10.1016/j.joca.2010.10.020pubmed: 21074628google scholar: lookup
  19. Henriksen M, Aaboe J, Bliddal H. The relationship between pain and dynamic knee joint loading in knee osteoarthritis varies with radiographic disease severity. A cross sectional study.. Knee 2012;19:392–398.
    doi: 10.1016/j.knee.2011.07.003pubmed: 21839636google scholar: lookup
  20. Crofford LJ. Chronic Pain: Where the Body Meets the Brain.. Trans. Am. Clin. Climatol. Assoc. 2015;126:167–183.
    pmc: PMC4530716pubmed: 26330672
  21. Breivik H, Collett B, Ventafridda V, Cohen R, Gallacher D. Survey of chronic pain in Europe: Prevalence, impact on daily life and treatment.. Eur. J. Pain. 2006;10:287–333.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ejpain.2005.06.009pubmed: 16095934google scholar: lookup
  22. MatLab P. 9.7. 0.1190202 (R2019b) The MathWorks Inc.; Natick, MA, USA: 2018.. .
  23. Serra Bragança FM, Roepstorff C, Rhodin M, Pfau T, van Weeren PR, Roepstorff L. Quantitative lameness assessment in the horse based on upper body movement symmetry: The effect of different filtering techniques on the quantification of motion symmetry.. Biomed. Signal Process. Control. 2020;57.
    doi: 10.1016/j.bspc.2019.101674google scholar: lookup
  24. Roepstorff L, Serra Bragança FM, Hardeman AM, Roepstorff C. Quality measures of correct diagonal stance detection in trot based on pelvic markers.. Comp. Exerc. Physiol. 2018;14:S45.
  25. Reed SK, Kramer J, Thombs L, Pitts JB, Wilson DA, Keegan KG. Comparison of results for body-mounted intertial sensor assessment with final lameness determination on 1224 equids.. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2020;256:590–599.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.256.5.590pubmed: 32068513google scholar: lookup
  26. Gleerup KB, Lindegaard C. Recognition and quantification of pain in horses: A tutorial review.. Equine Vet. Educ. 2016;28:47–57.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12383google scholar: lookup
  27. Team R Core. A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.. Team, R Core; Vienna, Austria: 2020.
  28. Gamer M, Lemon J, Fellows I, Singh P. irr: Various Coefficients of Interrater Reliability and Agreement.. ResearchGate; Berlin, Germany: 2019.
  29. Gibbons JD. Nonparametric Measures of Association.. SAGE Publications; Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: 1993. Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance; pp. 30–48.
  30. Friedman J, Hastie T, Tibshirani R. Regularization Paths for Generalized Linear Models via Coordinate Descent.. J. Stat. Softw. 2010;33:1–22.
    doi: 10.18637/jss.v033.i01pmc: PMC2929880pubmed: 20808728google scholar: lookup
  31. Le S, Josse J, Husson F. FactoMineR: An R Package for Multivariate Analysis.. J. Stat. Softw. 2008;25:1–18.
    doi: 10.18637/jss.v025.i01google scholar: lookup
  32. Wickham H. ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis.. Springer; Cham, Switzerland: 2016.
  33. Schmidt RC. Managing Delphi surveys using nonparametric statistical techniques.. Decis. Sci. 1997;28:763–774.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5915.1997.tb01330.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  34. Campebell RC, Peiró JR, Valadão CAA, Santana AE, Cunha FQ. Effects of lidocaine on lipopolysaccharide-induced synovitis in horses.. Arq. Bras. Med. Vet. Zootec. 2004;56:281–291.
    doi: 10.1590/S0102-09352004000300001google scholar: lookup
  35. Firth EC, Klein WR, Nouws JFM, Wensing T. Effect of induced synovial inflammation on pharmacokinetics and synovial concentration of sodium ampicillin and kanamycin sulfate after systemic administration in ponies.. J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther. 1988;11:56–62.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2885.1988.tb00121.xpubmed: 3288768google scholar: lookup
  36. Pritchett LC, Ulibarri C, Roberts MC, Schneider RK, Sellon DC. Identification of potential physiological and behavioral indicators of postoperative pain in horses after exploratory celiotomy for colic.. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2003;80:31–43.
    doi: 10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00205-8google scholar: lookup
  37. Jensen MM, Kellett JG, Hallas P, Brabrand M. Fever increases heart rate and respiratory rate; a prospective observational study of acutely admitted medical patients.. Acute Med. 2019;18:141–143.
    pubmed: 31536050
  38. Davies P, Maconochie I. The relationship between body temperature, heart rate and respiratory rate in children.. Emerg. Med. J. 2009;26:641–643.
    doi: 10.1136/emj.2008.061598pubmed: 19700579google scholar: lookup
  39. Lindegaard C, Thomsen MH, Larsen S, Andersen PH. Analgesic efficacy of intra-articular morphine in experimentally induced radiocarpal synovitis in horses.. Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 2010;37:171–185.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1467-2995.2009.00521.xpubmed: 20230568google scholar: lookup
  40. Craig KD. The social communication model of pain.. Can. Psychol. 2009;50:22–32.
    doi: 10.1037/a0014772google scholar: lookup
  41. Kunz M, Lautenbacher S. The faces of pain: A cluster analysis of individual differences in facial activity patterns of pain.. Eur. J. Pain. 2014;18:813–823.
    doi: 10.1002/j.1532-2149.2013.00421.xpubmed: 24174396google scholar: lookup
  42. Blais C, Fiset D, Furumoto-Deshaies H, Kunz M, Seuss D. Facial Features Underlying the Decoding of Pain Expressions.. J. Pain. 2019;20:728–738.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2019.01.002pubmed: 30639571google scholar: lookup
  43. Karmann AJ, Lautenbacher S, Bauer F, Kunz M. The influence of communicative relations on facial responses to pain: Does it matter who is watching?. Pain Res. Manag. 2014;19:15–22.
    doi: 10.1155/2014/195286pmc: PMC3938338pubmed: 24432350google scholar: lookup
  44. Peeters PAM, Vlaeyen JWS. Feeling more pain, yet showing less: The influence of social threat on pain.. J. Pain. 2011;12:1255–1261.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2011.07.007pubmed: 22050970google scholar: lookup
  45. Torcivia C, McDonnell S. In-Person Caretaker Visits Disrupt Ongoing Discomfort Behavior in Hospitalized Equine.. Animals 2020;10:210.
    doi: 10.3390/ani10020210pmc: PMC7070845pubmed: 32012670google scholar: lookup
  46. Weary DM, Niel L, Flower FC, Fraser D. Identifying and preventing pain in animals.. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2006;100:64–76.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.04.013google scholar: lookup
  47. Sneddon LU, Elwood RW, Adamo SA, Leach MC. Defining and assessing animal pain.. Anim. Behav. 2014;97:201–212.
    doi: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.09.007google scholar: lookup
  48. Dai F, Leach M, MacRae AM, Minero M, Dalla Costa E. Does Thirty-Minute Standardised Training Improve the Inter-Observer Reliability of the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS)? A Case Study.. Animals 2020;10:781.
    doi: 10.3390/ani10050781pmc: PMC7277819pubmed: 32365927google scholar: lookup
  49. Kiddie JL, Collins LM. Development and validation of a quality of life assessment tool for use in kennelled dogs (Canis familiaris). Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2014;158:57–68.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2014.05.008google scholar: lookup
  50. Leach MC, Coulter CA, Richardson CA, Flecknell PA. Are We Looking in the Wrong Place? Implications for Behavioural-Based Pain in Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculi) and Beyond?. PLoS ONE 2011;6.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013347pmc: PMC3057975pubmed: 21423605google scholar: lookup
  51. Wathan J, Burrows AM, Waller BM, McComb K. EquiFACS: The equine facial action coding system.. PLoS ONE 2015;10:1–35.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131738pmc: PMC4526551pubmed: 26244573google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 12 times.
  1. Nowak M, Martin-Cirera A, Jenner F, Auer U. Time budgets and weight shifting as indicators of pain in hospitalized horses. Front Pain Res (Lausanne) 2024;5:1410302.
    doi: 10.3389/fpain.2024.1410302pubmed: 39109240google scholar: lookup
  2. Auer U, Kelemen Z, Vogl C, von Ritgen S, Haddad R, Torres Borda L, Gabmaier C, Breteler J, Jenner F. Development, refinement, and validation of an equine musculoskeletal pain scale. Front Pain Res (Lausanne) 2023;4:1292299.
    doi: 10.3389/fpain.2023.1292299pubmed: 38312997google scholar: lookup
  3. Ask K, Rhodin M, Rashid-Engström M, Hernlund E, Andersen PH. Changes in the equine facial repertoire during different orthopedic pain intensities. Sci Rep 2024 Jan 2;14(1):129.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-50383-ypubmed: 38167926google scholar: lookup
  4. Anderson KA, Morrice-West AV, Wong ASM, Walmsley EA, Fisher AD, Whitton RC, Hitchens PL. Poor Association between Facial Expression and Mild Lameness in Thoroughbred Trot-Up Examinations. Animals (Basel) 2023 May 23;13(11).
    doi: 10.3390/ani13111727pubmed: 37889660google scholar: lookup
  5. Mercer MA, Davis JL, McKenzie HC. The Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutic Evaluation of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Adult Horses. Animals (Basel) 2023 May 10;13(10).
    doi: 10.3390/ani13101597pubmed: 37238029google scholar: lookup
  6. Carvalho JRG, Trindade PHE, Conde G, Antonioli ML, Funnicelli MIG, Dias PP, Canola PA, Chinelatto MA, Ferraz GC. Facial Expressions of Horses Using Weighted Multivariate Statistics for Assessment of Subtle Local Pain Induced by Polylactide-Based Polymers Implanted Subcutaneously. Animals (Basel) 2022 Sep 13;12(18).
    doi: 10.3390/ani12182400pubmed: 36139260google scholar: lookup
  7. Ask K, Andersen PH, Tamminen LM, Rhodin M, Hernlund E. Performance of four equine pain scales and their association to movement asymmetry in horses with induced orthopedic pain. Front Vet Sci 2022;9:938022.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.938022pubmed: 36032285google scholar: lookup
  8. Broomé S, Ask K, Rashid-Engström M, Haubro Andersen P, Kjellström H. Sharing pain: Using pain domain transfer for video recognition of low grade orthopedic pain in horses. PLoS One 2022;17(3):e0263854.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0263854pubmed: 35245288google scholar: lookup
  9. Haussler KK, Hesbach AL, Romano L, Goff L, Bergh A. A Systematic Review of Musculoskeletal Mobilization and Manipulation Techniques Used in Veterinary Medicine. Animals (Basel) 2021 Sep 24;11(10).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11102787pubmed: 34679808google scholar: lookup
  10. Andersen PH, Broomé S, Rashid M, Lundblad J, Ask K, Li Z, Hernlund E, Rhodin M, Kjellström H. Towards Machine Recognition of Facial Expressions of Pain in Horses. Animals (Basel) 2021 Jun 1;11(6).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11061643pubmed: 34206077google scholar: lookup
  11. Torcivia C, McDonnell S. Equine Discomfort Ethogram. Animals (Basel) 2021 Feb 23;11(2).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11020580pubmed: 33672338google scholar: lookup
  12. Story MR, Haussler KK, Nout-Lomas YS, Aboellail TA, Kawcak CE, Barrett MF, Frisbie DD, McIlwraith CW. Equine Cervical Pain and Dysfunction: Pathology, Diagnosis and Treatment. Animals (Basel) 2021 Feb 6;11(2).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11020422pubmed: 33562089google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,727 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.