FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Journal of virology1997; 71(9); 6697-6705; doi: 10.1128/JVI.71.9.6697-6705.1997

Repeated emergence of epidemic/epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis from a single genotype of enzootic subtype ID virus.

Abstract: Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) epidemics and equine epizootics occurred periodically in the Americas from the 1920s until the early 1970s, when the causative viruses, subtypes IAB and IC, were postulated to have become extinct. Recent outbreaks in Columbia and Venezuela have renewed interest in the source of epidemic/epizootic viruses and their mechanism of interepizootic maintenance. We performed phylogenetic analyses of VEE virus isolates spanning the entire temporal and geographic range of strains available, using 857-nucleotide reverse transcription-PCR products including the E3 and E2 genes. Analyses indicated that epidemic/epizootic viruses are closely related to four distinct, enzootic subtype ID-like lineages. One of these lineages, which occurs in Columbia, Peru, and Venezuela, also included all of the epidemic/epizootic isolates; the remaining three ID-like lineages, which occur in Panama, Peru, Florida, coastal Ecuador, and southwestern Columbia, were apparently not associated with epizootic VEE emergence. Within the Columbia/Peru/Venezuela lineage, three distinct monophyletic groups of epidemic/epizootic viruses were delineated, indicating that VEE emergence has occurred independently at least three times (convergent evolution). Representative, complete E2 amino acid sequences were compared to identify potential determinants of equine virulence and epizootic emergence. Amino acids implicated previously in laboratory mouse attenuation generally did not vary among the natural isolates that we examined, indicating that they probably are not involved in equine virulence changes associated with VEE emergence. Most informative amino acids correlated with phylogenetic relationships rather than phenotypic characteristics, suggesting that VEE emergence has resulted from several distinct combinations of mutations that generate viruses with similar antigenic and equine virulence phenotypes.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 1997-09-01 PubMed ID: 9261393PubMed Central: PMC191949DOI: 10.1128/JVI.71.9.6697-6705.1997Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Research Support
  • Non-U.S. Gov't
  • Research Support
  • U.S. Gov't
  • P.H.S.

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research article investigates the recurring emergence of Venezuelan equine encephalitis, known as VEE, from a single genotype of enzootic subtype ID virus. The study involves detailed phylogenetic analyses of VEE virus isolates across time and geography, and analyzes possible determinants for virus virulence and emergence.

Research Method

  • The researchers carried out phylogenetic analyses on VEE virus isolates, which spanned across different timelines and geographic locations. For this, they used 857-nucleotide reverse transcription-PCR products, inclusive of the E3 and E2 genes.
  • The main objective of this analysis was to examine how closely the epidemic/epizootic viruses were related to four distinct, enzootic subtype ID-like lineages.

Findings

  • The analysis indicated that the epidemic/epizootic viruses were closely related to one of the subtypes, which was found in Columbia, Peru, and Venezuela. All the epidemic/epizootic isolates were included in this subtype, whereas the remaining three subtypes were not associated with the emergence of VEE.
  • Within the Columbia/Peru/Venezuela lineage, three specific groups of epidemic/epizootic viruses were determined. This delineation showed that the emergence of VEE had occurred independently at least three times, indicating an occurrence of convergent evolution.

Amino Acid Analysis

  • The researchers also compared representative, complete E2 amino acid sequences to identify possible determinants of the virus’s virulence and emergence in equines.
  • They found that amino acids previously implicated in laboratory mouse attenuation generally did not vary among the natural isolates examined. This suggested that these amino acids are likely not involved in changes in equine virulence associated with VEE emergence.
  • Most of the informative amino acids were found to correlate with the phylogenetic relationships rather than phenotypic characteristics. This suggests that VEE emergence resulted from several distinct combinations of mutations that produce viruses with similar antigenic and equine virulence phenotypes.

Cite This Article

APA
Powers AM, Oberste MS, Brault AC, Rico-Hesse R, Schmura SM, Smith JF, Kang W, Sweeney WP, Weaver SC. (1997). Repeated emergence of epidemic/epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis from a single genotype of enzootic subtype ID virus. J Virol, 71(9), 6697-6705. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.71.9.6697-6705.1997

Publication

Journal of virology
ISSN: 0022-538X
NlmUniqueID: 0113724
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 71
Issue: 9
Pages: 6697-6705

Researcher Affiliations

Powers, A M
  • Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston 77555, USA.
Oberste, M S
    Brault, A C
      Rico-Hesse, R
        Schmura, S M
          Smith, J F
            Kang, W
              Sweeney, W P
                Weaver, S C

                  MeSH Terms

                  • Amino Acid Sequence
                  • Base Sequence
                  • Biological Evolution
                  • DNA, Viral
                  • Disease Outbreaks
                  • Encephalitis Virus, Venezuelan Equine / classification
                  • Encephalitis Virus, Venezuelan Equine / genetics
                  • Encephalomyelitis, Venezuelan Equine / epidemiology
                  • Encephalomyelitis, Venezuelan Equine / virology
                  • Genotype
                  • Molecular Sequence Data
                  • Phylogeny
                  • Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
                  • Viral Envelope Proteins / genetics

                  Grant Funding

                  • AI10984 / NIAID NIH HHS
                  • AI39508 / NIAID NIH HHS
                  • AI39800 / NIAID NIH HHS

                  References

                  This article includes 38 references
                  1. Mathews JH, Roehrig JT. Determination of the protective epitopes on the glycoproteins of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus by passive transfer of monoclonal antibodies.. J Immunol 1982 Dec;129(6):2763-7.
                    pubmed: 6183343
                  2. Roehrig JT, Day JW, Kinney RM. Antigenic analysis of the surface glycoproteins of a Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus (TC-83) using monoclonal antibodies.. Virology 1982 Apr 30;118(2):269-78.
                    pubmed: 6178209doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(82)90346-4google scholar: lookup
                  3. Walder R, Suarez OM, Calisher CH. Arbovirus studies in the Guajira region of Venezuela: activities of eastern equine encephalitis and Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses during an interepizootic period.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1984 Jul;33(4):699-707.
                    pubmed: 6148023doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1984.33.699google scholar: lookup
                  4. Roehrig JT, Mathews JH. The neutralization site on the E2 glycoprotein of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis (TC-83) virus is composed of multiple conformationally stable epitopes.. Virology 1985 Apr 30;142(2):347-56.
                    pubmed: 2414905doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(85)90343-5google scholar: lookup
                  5. Rico-Hesse R, Roehrig JT, Dickerman RW. Monoclonal antibodies define antigenic variation in the ID variety of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1988 Jan;38(1):187-94.
                    pubmed: 2449089doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1988.38.187google scholar: lookup
                  6. Rico-Hesse R, Roehrig JT, Trent DW, Dickerman RW. Genetic variation of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus strains of the ID variety in Colombia.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1988 Jan;38(1):195-204.
                    pubmed: 3341520doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1988.38.195google scholar: lookup
                  7. Kinney RM, Esposito JJ, Mathews JH, Johnson BJ, Roehrig JT, Barrett AD, Trent DW. Recombinant vaccinia virus/Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) virus protects mice from peripheral VEE virus challenge.. J Virol 1988 Dec;62(12):4697-702.
                    pubmed: 3184276doi: 10.1128/JVI.62.12.4697-4702.1988google scholar: lookup
                  8. Kinney RM, Johnson BJ, Welch JB, Tsuchiya KR, Trent DW. The full-length nucleotide sequences of the virulent Trinidad donkey strain of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus and its attenuated vaccine derivative, strain TC-83.. Virology 1989 May;170(1):19-30.
                    pubmed: 2524126doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(89)90347-4google scholar: lookup
                  9. Johnson BJ, Brubaker JR, Roehrig JT, Trent DW. Variants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus that resist neutralization define a domain of the E2 glycoprotein.. Virology 1990 Aug;177(2):676-83.
                    pubmed: 1695412doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(90)90533-wgoogle scholar: lookup
                  10. Weaver SC, Scott TW, Rico-Hesse R. Molecular evolution of eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus in North America.. Virology 1991 Jun;182(2):774-84.
                    pubmed: 2024496doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(91)90618-lgoogle scholar: lookup
                  11. Davis NL, Powell N, Greenwald GF, Willis LV, Johnson BJ, Smith JF, Johnston RE. Attenuating mutations in the E2 glycoprotein gene of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus: construction of single and multiple mutants in a full-length cDNA clone.. Virology 1991 Jul;183(1):20-31.
                    pubmed: 2053280doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(91)90114-qgoogle scholar: lookup
                  12. Weaver SC, Rico-Hesse R, Scott TW. Genetic diversity and slow rates of evolution in New World alphaviruses.. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1992;176:99-117.
                    pubmed: 1318187doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-77011-1_7google scholar: lookup
                  13. Weaver SC, Bellew LA, Rico-Hesse R. Phylogenetic analysis of alphaviruses in the Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex and identification of the source of epizootic viruses.. Virology 1992 Nov;191(1):282-90.
                    pubmed: 1413507doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(92)90190-zgoogle scholar: lookup
                  14. Kinney RM, Tsuchiya KR, Sneider JM, Trent DW. Genetic evidence that epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) viruses may have evolved from enzootic VEE subtype I-D virus.. Virology 1992 Dec;191(2):569-80.
                    pubmed: 1448915doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(92)90232-egoogle scholar: lookup
                  15. Kinney RM, Tsuchiya KR, Sneider JM, Trent DW. Molecular evidence for the origin of the widespread Venezuelan equine encephalitis epizootic of 1969 to 1972.. J Gen Virol 1992 Dec;73 ( Pt 12):3301-5.
                    pubmed: 1469368doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-73-12-3301google scholar: lookup
                  16. Kinney RM, Chang GJ, Tsuchiya KR, Sneider JM, Roehrig JT, Woodward TM, Trent DW. Attenuation of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus strain TC-83 is encoded by the 5'-noncoding region and the E2 envelope glycoprotein.. J Virol 1993 Mar;67(3):1269-77.
                    pubmed: 7679745doi: 10.1128/JVI.67.3.1269-1277.1993google scholar: lookup
                  17. Sneider JM, Kinney RM, Tsuchiya KR, Trent DW. Molecular evidence that epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) I-AB viruses are not evolutionary derivatives of enzootic VEE subtype I-E or II viruses.. J Gen Virol 1993 Mar;74 ( Pt 3):519-23.
                    pubmed: 8445371doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-74-3-519google scholar: lookup
                  18. Weaver SC, Hagenbaugh A, Bellew LA, Netesov SV, Volchkov VE, Chang GJ, Clarke DK, Gousset L, Scott TW, Trent DW. A comparison of the nucleotide sequences of eastern and western equine encephalomyelitis viruses with those of other alphaviruses and related RNA viruses.. Virology 1993 Nov;197(1):375-90.
                    pubmed: 8105605doi: 10.1006/viro.1993.1599google scholar: lookup
                  19. Weaver SC, Hagenbaugh A, Bellew LA, Gousset L, Mallampalli V, Holland JJ, Scott TW. Evolution of alphaviruses in the eastern equine encephalomyelitis complex.. J Virol 1994 Jan;68(1):158-69.
                    pubmed: 8254725doi: 10.1128/JVI.68.1.158-169.1994google scholar: lookup
                  20. Olsen GJ, Matsuda H, Hagstrom R, Overbeek R. fastDNAmL: a tool for construction of phylogenetic trees of DNA sequences using maximum likelihood.. Comput Appl Biosci 1994 Feb;10(1):41-8.
                    pubmed: 8193955doi: 10.1093/bioinformatics/10.1.41google scholar: lookup
                  21. Rico-Hesse R, Weaver SC, de Siger J, Medina G, Salas RA. Emergence of a new epidemic/epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in South America.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1995 Jun 6;92(12):5278-81.
                    pubmed: 7777497doi: 10.1073/pnas.92.12.5278google scholar: lookup
                  22. Cilnis MJ, Kang W, Weaver SC. Genetic conservation of Highlands J viruses.. Virology 1996 Apr 15;218(2):343-51.
                    pubmed: 8610461doi: 10.1006/viro.1996.0203google scholar: lookup
                  23. Oberste MS, Parker MD, Smith JF. Complete sequence of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus subtype IE reveals conserved and hypervariable domains within the C terminus of nsP3.. Virology 1996 May 1;219(1):314-20.
                    pubmed: 8623548doi: 10.1006/viro.1996.0254google scholar: lookup
                  24. Weaver SC, Salas R, Rico-Hesse R, Ludwig GV, Oberste MS, Boshell J, Tesh RB. Re-emergence of epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in South America. VEE Study Group.. Lancet 1996 Aug 17;348(9025):436-40.
                    pubmed: 8709783doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(96)02275-1google scholar: lookup
                  25. Weaver SC, Kang W, Shirako Y, Rumenapf T, Strauss EG, Strauss JH. Recombinational history and molecular evolution of western equine encephalomyelitis complex alphaviruses.. J Virol 1997 Jan;71(1):613-23.
                    pubmed: 8985391doi: 10.1128/JVI.71.1.613-623.1997google scholar: lookup
                  26. SHOPE RE, CAUSEY OR, DE ANDRADE AH. THE VENEZUELAN EQUINE ENCEPHALOMYELITIS COMPLEX OF GROUP A ARTHROPOD-BORNE VIRUSES, INCLUDING MUCAMBO AND PIXUNA FROM THE AMAZON REGION OF BRAZIL.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1964 Sep;13:723-7.
                    pubmed: 14205893doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1964.13.723google scholar: lookup
                  27. Johnson KM, Shelokov A, Peralta PH, Dammin GJ, Young NA. Recovery of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus in Panama. A fatal case in man.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1968 May;17(3):432-40.
                    pubmed: 5690051doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1968.17.432google scholar: lookup
                  28. Young NA, Johnson KM. Antigenic variants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus: their geographic distribution and epidemiologic significance.. Am J Epidemiol 1969 Mar;89(3):286-307.
                    pubmed: 5773424doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a120942google scholar: lookup
                  29. Franck PT, Johnson KM. An outbreak of Venezuelan encephalitis in man in the Panamá Canal Zone.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1970 Sep;19(5):860-5.
                    pubmed: 5453912doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1970.19.860google scholar: lookup
                  30. Martin DH, Eddy GA, Sudia WD, Reeves WC, Newhouse VF, Johnson KM. An epidemiologic study of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in Costa Rica, 1970.. Am J Epidemiol 1972 Jun;95(6):565-78.
                    pubmed: 5063895doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a121426google scholar: lookup
                  31. Walton TE, Alvarez O Jr, Buckwalter RM, Johnson KM. Experimental infection of horses with enzootic and epizootic strains of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus.. J Infect Dis 1973 Sep;128(3):271-82.
                    pubmed: 4728689doi: 10.1093/infdis/128.3.271google scholar: lookup
                  32. Johnson KM, Martin DH. Venezuelan equine encephalitis.. Adv Vet Sci Comp Med 1974;18(0):79-116.
                    pubmed: 4609399
                  33. Sudia WD, Newhouse VF, Beadle ID, Miller DL, Johnston JG Jr, Young R, Calisher CH, Maness K. Epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in North America in 1971: vector studies.. Am J Epidemiol 1975 Jan;101(1):17-35.
                    pubmed: 235212doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112068google scholar: lookup
                  34. Bowen GS, Calisher CH. Virological and serological studies of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in humans.. J Clin Microbiol 1976 Jul;4(1):22-7.
                    pubmed: 956360doi: 10.1128/jcm.4.1.22-27.1976google scholar: lookup
                  35. Scherer WF, Chin J. Responses of guinea pigs to infections with strains of Venezuelan encephalitis virus, and correlations with equine virulence.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1977 Mar;26(2):307-12.
                    pubmed: 851494doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1977.26.307google scholar: lookup
                  36. France JK, Wyrick BC, Trent DW. Biochemical and antigenic comparison of the envelope glycoproteins of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus strains.. J Gen Virol 1979 Sep;44(3):725-40.
                    pubmed: 119035doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-44-3-725google scholar: lookup
                  37. Monath TP, Lazuick JS, Cropp CB, Rush WA, Calisher CH, Kinney RM, Trent DW, Kemp GE, Bowen GS, Francy DB. Recovery of Tonate virus ("Bijou Bridge" strain), a member of the Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus complex, from Cliff Swallow nest bugs (Oeciacus vicarius) and nestling birds in North America.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1980 Sep;29(5):969-83.
                    pubmed: 7435797doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1980.29.969google scholar: lookup
                  38. Devereux J, Haeberli P, Smithies O. A comprehensive set of sequence analysis programs for the VAX.. Nucleic Acids Res 1984 Jan 11;12(1 Pt 1):387-95.
                    pubmed: 6546423doi: 10.1093/nar/12.1part1.387google scholar: lookup

                  Citations

                  This article has been cited 48 times.
                  1. León B, González G, Nicoli A, Rojas A, Pizio AD, Ramirez-Carvajal L, Jimenez C. Phylogenetic and Mutation Analysis of the Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Sequence Isolated in Costa Rica from a Mare with Encephalitis. Vet Sci 2022 May 28;9(6).
                    doi: 10.3390/vetsci9060258pubmed: 35737310google scholar: lookup
                  2. Sloyer KE, Santos M, Rivera E, Reeves LE, Carrera JP, Vittor AY, Valderrama A, Burkett-Cadena ND. Evaluating sampling strategies for enzootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vectors in Florida and Panama. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022 Apr;16(4):e0010329.
                    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010329pubmed: 35417476google scholar: lookup
                  3. Landers VD, Wilkey DW, Merchant ML, Mitchell TC, Sokoloski KJ. The Alphaviral Capsid Protein Inhibits IRAK1-Dependent TLR Signaling. Viruses 2021 Feb 27;13(3).
                    doi: 10.3390/v13030377pubmed: 33673546google scholar: lookup
                  4. Carrera JP, Pittí Y, Molares-Martínez JC, Casal E, Pereyra-Elias R, Saenz L, Guerrero I, Galué J, Rodriguez-Alvarez F, Jackman C, Pascale JM, Armien B, Weaver SC, Donnelly CA, Vittor AY. Clinical and Serological Findings of Madariaga and Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Viral Infections: A Follow-up Study 5 Years After an Outbreak in Panama. Open Forum Infect Dis 2020 Sep;7(9):ofaa359.
                    doi: 10.1093/ofid/ofaa359pubmed: 33005697google scholar: lookup
                  5. Rossi SL, Russell-Lodrigue KE, Plante KS, Bergren NA, Gorchakov R, Roy CJ, Weaver SC. Rationally Attenuated Vaccines for Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Protect Against Epidemic Strains with a Single Dose. Vaccines (Basel) 2020 Sep 2;8(3).
                    doi: 10.3390/vaccines8030497pubmed: 32887313google scholar: lookup
                  6. Azar SR, Campos RK, Bergren NA, Camargos VN, Rossi SL. Epidemic Alphaviruses: Ecology, Emergence and Outbreaks. Microorganisms 2020 Aug 1;8(8).
                    doi: 10.3390/microorganisms8081167pubmed: 32752150google scholar: lookup
                  7. Rusnak JM, Glass PJ, Weaver SC, Sabourin CL, Glenn AM, Klimstra W, Badorrek CS, Nasar F, Ward LA. Approach to Strain Selection and the Propagation of Viral Stocks for Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Vaccine Efficacy Testing under the Animal Rule. Viruses 2019 Aug 31;11(9).
                    doi: 10.3390/v11090807pubmed: 31480472google scholar: lookup
                  8. Torres R, Samudio R, Carrera JP, Young J, Márquez R, Hurtado L, Weaver S, Chaves LF, Tesh R, Cáceres L. Enzootic mosquito vector species at equine encephalitis transmission foci in the República de Panamá. PLoS One 2017;12(9):e0185491.
                    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0185491pubmed: 28937995google scholar: lookup
                  9. Ludlow M, Kortekaas J, Herden C, Hoffmann B, Tappe D, Trebst C, Griffin DE, Brindle HE, Solomon T, Brown AS, van Riel D, Wolthers KC, Pajkrt D, Wohlsein P, Martina BEE, Baumgärtner W, Verjans GM, Osterhaus ADME. Neurotropic virus infections as the cause of immediate and delayed neuropathology. Acta Neuropathol 2016 Feb;131(2):159-184.
                    doi: 10.1007/s00401-015-1511-3pubmed: 26659576google scholar: lookup
                  10. Go YY, Balasuriya UB, Lee CK. Zoonotic encephalitides caused by arboviruses: transmission and epidemiology of alphaviruses and flaviviruses. Clin Exp Vaccine Res 2014 Jan;3(1):58-77.
                    doi: 10.7774/cevr.2014.3.1.58pubmed: 24427764google scholar: lookup
                  11. Pisano MB, Oria G, Beskow G, Aguilar J, Konigheim B, Cacace ML, Aguirre L, Stein M, Contigiani MS. Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses (VEEV) in Argentina: serological evidence of human infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013;7(12):e2551.
                    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002551pubmed: 24349588google scholar: lookup
                  12. Guerbois M, Volkova E, Forrester NL, Rossi SL, Frolov I, Weaver SC. IRES-driven expression of the capsid protein of the Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus TC-83 vaccine strain increases its attenuation and safety. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013;7(5):e2197.
                    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002197pubmed: 23675542google scholar: lookup
                  13. Rülker T, Voß L, Thullier P, O' Brien LM, Pelat T, Perkins SD, Langermann C, Schirrmann T, Dübel S, Marschall HJ, Hust M, Hülseweh B. Isolation and characterisation of a human-like antibody fragment (scFv) that inactivates VEEV in vitro and in vivo. PLoS One 2012;7(5):e37242.
                    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0037242pubmed: 22666347google scholar: lookup
                  14. Aguilar PV, Estrada-Franco JG, Navarro-Lopez R, Ferro C, Haddow AD, Weaver SC. Endemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in the Americas: hidden under the dengue umbrella. Future Virol 2011;6(6):721-740.
                    doi: 10.2217/FVL.11.5pubmed: 21765860google scholar: lookup
                  15. Atasheva S, Fish A, Fornerod M, Frolova EI. Venezuelan equine Encephalitis virus capsid protein forms a tetrameric complex with CRM1 and importin alpha/beta that obstructs nuclear pore complex function. J Virol 2010 May;84(9):4158-71.
                    doi: 10.1128/JVI.02554-09pubmed: 20147401google scholar: lookup
                  16. Weaver SC, Reisen WK. Present and future arboviral threats. Antiviral Res 2010 Feb;85(2):328-45.
                    doi: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2009.10.008pubmed: 19857523google scholar: lookup
                  17. Aguilar PV, Adams AP, Suárez V, Beingolea L, Vargas J, Manock S, Freire J, Espinoza WR, Felices V, Diaz A, Liang X, Roca Y, Weaver SC, Kochel TJ. Genetic characterization of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus from Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru: identification of a new subtype ID lineage. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2009 Sep 15;3(9):e514.
                    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000514pubmed: 19753102google scholar: lookup
                  18. Quiroz E, Aguilar PV, Cisneros J, Tesh RB, Weaver SC. Venezuelan equine encephalitis in Panama: fatal endemic disease and genetic diversity of etiologic viral strains. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2009 Jun 30;3(6):e472.
                    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000472pubmed: 19564908google scholar: lookup
                  19. Morrison AC, Forshey BM, Notyce D, Astete H, Lopez V, Rocha C, Carrion R, Carey C, Eza D, Montgomery JM, Kochel TJ. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in Iquitos, Peru: urban transmission of a sylvatic strain. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2008;2(12):e349.
                    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000349pubmed: 19079600google scholar: lookup
                  20. Kirsch MI, Hülseweh B, Nacke C, Rülker T, Schirrmann T, Marschall HJ, Hust M, Dübel S. Development of human antibody fragments using antibody phage display for the detection and diagnosis of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV). BMC Biotechnol 2008 Sep 2;8:66.
                    doi: 10.1186/1472-6750-8-66pubmed: 18764933google scholar: lookup
                  21. Carrara AS, Coffey LL, Aguilar PV, Moncayo AC, Da Rosa AP, Nunes MR, Tesh RB, Weaver SC. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infection of cotton rats. Emerg Infect Dis 2007 Aug;13(8):1158-65.
                    doi: 10.3201/eid1308.061157pubmed: 17953085google scholar: lookup
                  22. Wang E, Paessler S, Aguilar PV, Carrara AS, Ni H, Greene IP, Weaver SC. Reverse transcription-PCR-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for rapid detection and differentiation of alphavirus infections. J Clin Microbiol 2006 Nov;44(11):4000-8.
                    doi: 10.1128/JCM.00175-06pubmed: 16957044google scholar: lookup
                  23. Anishchenko M, Bowen RA, Paessler S, Austgen L, Greene IP, Weaver SC. Venezuelan encephalitis emergence mediated by a phylogenetically predicted viral mutation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006 Mar 28;103(13):4994-9.
                    doi: 10.1073/pnas.0509961103pubmed: 16549790google scholar: lookup
                  24. Navarro JC, Medina G, Vasquez C, Coffey LL, Wang E, Suárez A, Biord H, Salas M, Weaver SC. Postepizootic persistence of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Venezuela. Emerg Infect Dis 2005 Dec;11(12):1907-15.
                    doi: 10.3201/eid1112.050533pubmed: 16485478google scholar: lookup
                  25. Greene IP, Paessler S, Austgen L, Anishchenko M, Brault AC, Bowen RA, Weaver SC. Envelope glycoprotein mutations mediate equine amplification and virulence of epizootic venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. J Virol 2005 Jul;79(14):9128-33.
                    doi: 10.1128/JVI.79.14.9128-9133.2005pubmed: 15994807google scholar: lookup
                  26. Coffey LL, Carrara AS, Paessler S, Haynie ML, Bradley RD, Tesh RB, Weaver SC. Experimental Everglades virus infection of cotton rats (Sigmodon hispidus). Emerg Infect Dis 2004 Dec;10(12):2182-8.
                    doi: 10.3201/eid1012.040442pubmed: 15663857google scholar: lookup
                  27. Brault AC, Powers AM, Ortiz D, Estrada-Franco JG, Navarro-Lopez R, Weaver SC. Venezuelan equine encephalitis emergence: enhanced vector infection from a single amino acid substitution in the envelope glycoprotein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004 Aug 3;101(31):11344-9.
                    doi: 10.1073/pnas.0402905101pubmed: 15277679google scholar: lookup
                  28. Aguilar PV, Greene IP, Coffey LL, Medina G, Moncayo AC, Anishchenko M, Ludwig GV, Turell MJ, O'Guinn ML, Lee J, Tesh RB, Watts DM, Russell KL, Hice C, Yanoviak S, Morrison AC, Klein TA, Dohm DJ, Guzman H, Travassos da Rosa AP, Guevara C, Kochel T, Olson J, Cabezas C, Weaver SC. Endemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in northern Peru. Emerg Infect Dis 2004 May;10(5):880-8.
                    doi: 10.3201/eid1005.030634pubmed: 15200823google scholar: lookup
                  29. Anishchenko M, Paessler S, Greene IP, Aguilar PV, Carrara AS, Weaver SC. Generation and characterization of closely related epizootic and enzootic infectious cDNA clones for studying interferon sensitivity and emergence mechanisms of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. J Virol 2004 Jan;78(1):1-8.
                    doi: 10.1128/jvi.78.1.1-8.2004pubmed: 14671082google scholar: lookup
                  30. Ferro C, Boshell J, Moncayo AC, Gonzalez M, Ahumada ML, Kang W, Weaver SC. Natural enzootic vectors of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Magdalena Valley, Colombia. Emerg Infect Dis 2003 Jan;9(1):49-54.
                    doi: 10.3201/eid0901.020136pubmed: 12533281google scholar: lookup
                  31. Wang E, Brault AC, Powers AM, Kang W, Weaver SC. Glycosaminoglycan binding properties of natural venezuelan equine encephalitis virus isolates. J Virol 2003 Jan;77(2):1204-10.
                    doi: 10.1128/jvi.77.2.1204-1210.2003pubmed: 12502837google scholar: lookup
                  32. Brault AC, Powers AM, Weaver SC. Vector infection determinants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus reside within the E2 envelope glycoprotein. J Virol 2002 Jun;76(12):6387-92.
                    doi: 10.1128/jvi.76.12.6387-6392.2002pubmed: 12021373google scholar: lookup
                  33. Brault AC, Powers AM, Holmes EC, Woelk CH, Weaver SC. Positively charged amino acid substitutions in the e2 envelope glycoprotein are associated with the emergence of venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. J Virol 2002 Feb;76(4):1718-30.
                    doi: 10.1128/jvi.76.4.1718-1730.2002pubmed: 11799167google scholar: lookup
                  34. . Identification of arboviruses and certain rodent-borne viruses: reevaluation of the paradigm. Emerg Infect Dis 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):756-8.
                    doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010431pubmed: 11585546google scholar: lookup
                  35. Ebel GD, Dupuis AP 2nd, Ngo K, Nicholas D, Kauffman E, Jones SA, Young D, Maffei J, Shi PY, Bernard K, Kramer LD. Partial genetic characterization of West Nile virus strains, New York State, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):650-3.
                    doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010408pubmed: 11585527google scholar: lookup
                  36. Powers AM, Brault AC, Shirako Y, Strauss EG, Kang W, Strauss JH, Weaver SC. Evolutionary relationships and systematics of the alphaviruses. J Virol 2001 Nov;75(21):10118-31.
                    doi: 10.1128/JVI.75.21.10118-10131.2001pubmed: 11581380google scholar: lookup
                  37. Brault AC, Powers AM, Medina G, Wang E, Kang W, Salas RA, De Siger J, Weaver SC. Potential sources of the 1995 Venezuelan equine encephalitis subtype IC epidemic. J Virol 2001 Jul;75(13):5823-32.
                    doi: 10.1128/JVI.75.13.5823-5832.2001pubmed: 11390583google scholar: lookup
                  38. White LJ, Wang JG, Davis NL, Johnston RE. Role of alpha/beta interferon in Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus pathogenesis: effect of an attenuating mutation in the 5' untranslated region. J Virol 2001 Apr;75(8):3706-18.
                    doi: 10.1128/JVI.75.8.3706-3718.2001pubmed: 11264360google scholar: lookup
                  39. Powers AM, Brault AC, Kinney RM, Weaver SC. The use of chimeric Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses as an approach for the molecular identification of natural virulence determinants. J Virol 2000 May;74(9):4258-63.
                    doi: 10.1128/jvi.74.9.4258-4263.2000pubmed: 10756040google scholar: lookup
                  40. Linssen B, Kinney RM, Aguilar P, Russell KL, Watts DM, Kaaden OR, Pfeffer M. Development of reverse transcription-PCR assays specific for detection of equine encephalitis viruses. J Clin Microbiol 2000 Apr;38(4):1527-35.
                    doi: 10.1128/JCM.38.4.1527-1535.2000pubmed: 10747138google scholar: lookup
                  41. Meissner JD, Huang CY, Pfeffer M, Kinney RM. Sequencing of prototype viruses in the Venezuelan equine encephalitis antigenic complex. Virus Res 1999 Oct;64(1):43-59.
                    doi: 10.1016/s0168-1702(99)00078-7pubmed: 10500282google scholar: lookup
                  42. Wang E, Barrera R, Boshell J, Ferro C, Freier JE, Navarro JC, Salas R, Vasquez C, Weaver SC. Genetic and phenotypic changes accompanying the emergence of epizootic subtype IC Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses from an enzootic subtype ID progenitor. J Virol 1999 May;73(5):4266-71.
                    doi: 10.1128/JVI.73.5.4266-4271.1999pubmed: 10196323google scholar: lookup
                  43. Spotts DR, Reich RM, Kalkhan MA, Kinney RM, Roehrig JT. Resistance to alpha/beta interferons correlates with the epizootic and virulence potential of Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses and is determined by the 5' noncoding region and glycoproteins. J Virol 1998 Dec;72(12):10286-91.
                    doi: 10.1128/JVI.72.12.10286-10291.1998pubmed: 9811777google scholar: lookup
                  44. Dhawan S, Pan-Ngum W, MacIntyre CR, Blacksell SD. Epidemiological indicators of accidental laboratory-origin outbreaks. Epidemiol Infect 2026 Jan 2;154:e16.
                    doi: 10.1017/S0950268825100915pubmed: 41480662google scholar: lookup
                  45. Hickson SE, Hyde JL. RNA structures within Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus E1 alter macrophage replication fitness and contribute to viral emergence. PLoS Pathog 2024 Sep;20(9):e1012179.
                    doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012179pubmed: 39331659google scholar: lookup
                  46. Hickson SE, Hyde JL. RNA structures within Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus E1 alter macrophage replication fitness and contribute to viral emergence. bioRxiv 2024 Apr 9;.
                    doi: 10.1101/2024.04.09.588743pubmed: 38645187google scholar: lookup
                  47. Landers VD, Thomas M, Isom CM, Karki D, Sokoloski KJ. Capsid protein mediated evasion of IRAK1-dependent signalling is essential to Sindbis virus neuroinvasion and virulence in mice. Emerg Microbes Infect 2024 Dec;13(1):2300452.
                    doi: 10.1080/22221751.2023.2300452pubmed: 38164715google scholar: lookup
                  48. Burkett-Cadena ND, Fish D, Weaver S, Vittor AY. Everglades virus: an underrecognized disease-causing subtype of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus endemic to Florida, USA. J Med Entomol 2023 Nov 14;60(6):1149-1164.
                    doi: 10.1093/jme/tjad070pubmed: 37862065google scholar: lookup
                  Subscribe to our newsletter
                  Join 99,780 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.