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Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland)2026; 15(7); 703; doi: 10.3390/pathogens15070703

Seroprevalence, Risk Factors, and Environmental Correlates of Babesia caballi, Toxoplasma gondii, and Coxiella burnetii in Equids from Southwestern Greece.

Abstract: Equids, primarily horses, are mostly used for recreational purposes, although in some rural areas they also serve as working animals, maintaining close and frequent contact with humans. Their risk of exposure to vector-borne and zoonotic pathogens can be affected by host-related factors, management practices and environmental conditions. This study aimed to investigate the seroprevalence and associated risk factors for infections by , , , and sensu lato in equids from Southwestern Greece. A total of 159 equids were tested using commercial serological assays. Weighted prevalence estimates were applied to account for unequal sampling. Associations were assessed using chi-square tests and logistic regression. Ecological niche modelling was employed to evaluate geographic patterns and environmental correlates. Seroprevalence was highest for (8.81%), followed by (7.55%) and (1.26%). No seropositive animals were detected for sensu lato. Ecological niche modelling showed acceptable predictive performance for , with BIO14 and BIO6 emerging as the main environmental predictors. In contrast, the model exhibited unacceptable predictive performance, and its environmental associations should therefore be interpreted cautiously. Complementary Random Forest analyses yielded comparable environmental rankings but showed higher classification performance for than for . Overall, the findings contribute to understanding pathogen exposure patterns in equids and underscore the importance of integrating epidemiological and environmental data in surveillance efforts.
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Publication Date: 2026-07-03 PubMed ID: 42515030PubMed Central: PMC13414711DOI: 10.3390/pathogens15070703Google Scholar: Lookup
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  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Overview

  • This research investigates the prevalence and risk factors of infections by Babesia caballi, Toxoplasma gondii, and Coxiella burnetii in horses and other equids from Southwestern Greece.
  • It also explores how environmental factors correlate with the presence of these pathogens to better understand their geographic and ecological distribution.

Introduction and Purpose

  • Equids (mainly horses) in Southwestern Greece are used for recreation and sometimes as working animals, often closely interacting with humans.
  • They can be exposed to vector-borne and zoonotic pathogens, meaning diseases that can be transmitted by vectors (like ticks) or from animals to humans.
  • The study aimed to determine the seroprevalence (presence of detectable antibodies indicating infection) of Babesia caballi, Toxoplasma gondii, Coxiella burnetii, and Babesia sensu lato in the equid population.
  • Additionally, the study analyzed risk factors related to hosts, management practices, and environmental conditions that influence pathogen exposure.
  • It also used ecological niche modelling to understand geographic patterns and environmental correlates of these infections.

Methods

  • A total of 159 equids were sampled across Southwestern Greece.
  • Commercial serological tests were used to detect antibodies against the pathogens, indicating past or current infections.
  • Prevalence estimates were weighted to adjust for unequal sampling across different groups or areas.
  • Statistical analysis included:
    • Chi-square tests to find associations between categorical variables (like infection status and risk factors).
    • Logistic regression to assess the strength and influence of risk factors on infection outcomes.
  • Ecological niche modelling helped predict geographic distribution based on environmental variables.
  • Random Forest analysis (a machine learning classification method) was used to validate environmental predictors and improve classification accuracy of infected versus non-infected animals.

Results

  • Seroprevalence results:
    • Babesia caballi had the highest seroprevalence at 8.81%.
    • Toxoplasma gondii followed with 7.55% seropositivity.
    • Coxiella burnetii was lowest at 1.26%.
    • No antibodies were detected for Babesia sensu lato, indicating no exposure or infection in the sampled population.
  • Ecological niche modelling findings:
    • The model for Babesia caballi showed acceptable predictive performance.
    • Environmental predictors BIO14 (precipitation of the driest month) and BIO6 (minimum temperature of the coldest month) were identified as key factors influencing distribution.
    • Conversely, the model for Toxoplasma gondii showed poor predictive performance, cautioning against overinterpretation of environmental associations for this pathogen.
  • Random Forest analysis:
    • Provided environmental variable rankings similar to the ecological niche models.
    • Achieved higher accuracy in classifying Babesia caballi infections compared to Toxoplasma gondii.

Discussion and Implications

  • The study highlights that Babesia caballi is the most common pathogen infecting equids in this region, followed by Toxoplasma gondii and Coxiella burnetii.
  • The absence of Babesia sensu lato suggests that those species might not be present or are rare in Southwestern Greece’s equid population.
  • Environmental factors such as temperature and precipitation influence the distribution of Babesia caballi, supporting the role of climatic conditions in vector-borne disease ecology.
  • Predictive modeling helps target surveillance and control measures by focusing on environmental hotspots where infections are more likely.
  • However, the less effective model for Toxoplasma gondii indicates that factors affecting its spread might be more complex or less directly related to the environmental variables used.
  • The integration of epidemiological data (seroprevalence and risk factors) with environmental analysis represents a comprehensive approach, facilitating better disease management strategies in equids and reducing risk to humans.

Conclusion

  • This study contributes valuable data on pathogen exposure in horses and related animals in Southwestern Greece.
  • It underscores the need for ongoing monitoring and consideration of environmental influences in managing equid-related zoonotic diseases.
  • The combined use of statistical and machine learning approaches enhances understanding of disease patterns and informs targeted interventions.

Cite This Article

APA
Touloudi A, Giannakopoulos A, Tyrnenopoulou P, Siasios A, Athanasakopoulou Z, Tsinopoulou G, Sofia M, Spyrou V, Fthenakis GC, Billinis C, Chatzopoulos DC. (2026). Seroprevalence, Risk Factors, and Environmental Correlates of Babesia caballi, Toxoplasma gondii, and Coxiella burnetii in Equids from Southwestern Greece. Pathogens, 15(7), 703. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15070703

Publication

Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland)
ISSN: 2076-0817
NlmUniqueID: 101596317
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 15
Issue: 7
PII: 703

Researcher Affiliations

Touloudi, Antonia
  • Department of Public and One Health, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece.
Giannakopoulos, Alexios
  • Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece.
Tyrnenopoulou, Panagiota
  • Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece.
Siasios, Athanasios
  • Independent Researcher, 50100 Kozani, Greece.
Athanasakopoulou, Zoi
  • Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece.
Tsinopoulou, Garyfallenia
  • Department of Public and One Health, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece.
Sofia, Marina
  • Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece.
Spyrou, Vassiliki
  • Faculty of Animal Science, University of Thessaly, 41110 Larissa, Greece.
Fthenakis, George C
  • Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece.
Billinis, Charalambos
  • Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece.
Chatzopoulos, Dimitrios C
  • Department of Public and One Health, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Seroepidemiologic Studies
  • Toxoplasma / immunology
  • Toxoplasma / isolation & purification
  • Babesia / immunology
  • Babesia / isolation & purification
  • Coxiella burnetii / immunology
  • Risk Factors
  • Greece / epidemiology
  • Toxoplasmosis, Animal / epidemiology
  • Toxoplasmosis, Animal / parasitology
  • Babesiosis / epidemiology
  • Babesiosis / parasitology
  • Q Fever / epidemiology
  • Q Fever / veterinary
  • Horses
  • Antibodies, Protozoan / blood
  • Horse Diseases / epidemiology
  • Horse Diseases / parasitology
  • Horse Diseases / microbiology
  • Antibodies, Bacterial / blood
  • Equidae / parasitology
  • Equidae / microbiology

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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