FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Veterinary world2020; 13(5); 847-859; doi: 10.14202/vetworld.2020.847-859

The different hormonal system during exercise stress coping in horses.

Abstract: The review discusses the hormonal changes during exercise stress. The exercise generally produces a rise of adrenaline (A), noradrenaline (NA), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), cortisol, glucagon, growth hormone, arginine vasopressine, etc., and a drop of insulin. The hormonal events during reestablishment of homeostasis due to exercise stress can be divided into a catabolic phase, with decreased tolerance of effort, and reversible biochemical, hormonal and immunological changes, and an anabolic phase, with a higher adaptive capacity, and enhanced performance. The two main hormonal axes activated in the catabolic phase are sympathetic-adrenal-medullary system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, while in the anabolic phase, growth hormone-insulin-like factor I axis, and gonadal axes. The hormonal responses during exercise and recovery can be regarded as regulatory and integrated endocrine responses. The increase of catecholamines and ACTH is dependent on the intensity of exercise; a marked increase in plasma A occurs during exercises with high emotional content. The response of cortisol is correlated with the duration of exercise, while the effect of exercise duration on b-endorphin changes is highly dependent on the type of exercise performed. Cortisol and b-endorphin changes usually occur in phase, but not during exercises with high emotional content. Glucocorticoids and iodothyronines are involved in meeting immediate energy demands, and a model of functional interactions between HPA axis and hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis during exercise stress is proposed. A modulation of coping responses to different energy demanding physical activities required for sport activities could be hypothesized. This review supports the proposed regulation of hypophysiotropic TRHergic neurons as metabolic integrators during exercise stress. Many hormonal systems (ghrelin, leptin, glucose, insulin, and cortisol) are activated to control substrate mobilizations and utilization. The cardiovascular homeostasis, the fluid and electrolyte balance during exercise are highly dependent on vasoactive hormones (antidiuretic hormone, atrial natriuretic peptide, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone, and prostaglandins) control.
Copyright: © Ferlazzo, et al.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2020-05-06 PubMed ID: 32636578PubMed Central: PMC7311877DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2020.847-859Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research article studied the hormonal changes in horses during exercise stress, finding that various hormones increase and decrease, leading to a catabolic and an anabolic phase. The authors suggest that the hormonal responses observed are integrated regulatory responses to uphold balance in the body.

Key Findings

  • The research found that exercise typically precipitates a rise in several hormones including adrenaline, noradrenaline, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), cortisol, glucagon, growth hormone, arginine vasopressine, and a notable drop of insulin.
  • The changes correspond with phases of exercise: the catabolic phase, which sees decreased tolerance of effort and reversible biochemical, hormonal, and immunological changes, and the anabolic phase characterized by greater adaptive capacity and improved performance.
  • The principal hormone systems triggered during the catabolic and anabolic phases are the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system respectively along with the growth hormone-insulin-like factor I and gonadal axes.

Hormonal Responses

  • The research indicates that the intensity of exercise dictates the increase of catecholamines and ACTH. More emotionally charged exercises stimulate a larger rise in plasma adrenaline.
  • Correlation was found between cortisol response and the duration of exercise. The impact of exercise duration on b-endorphin changes majorly depends on the type of exercise undertaken.
  • While cortisol and b-endorphin changes generally occur simultaneously, this was not found to be the case during exercises with high emotional content.

Endocrine Responses During Exercise

  • Glucocorticoids and iodothyronines play a fundamental role in satisfying immediate energy needs. A theoretical model of functional interactions between the HPA axis and hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis in response to exercise stress was proposed in the review.
  • The researchers speculated a modulation of coping responses to varying energy demanding physical activities required for sporting activities.
  • The research endorses the proposed regulation of hypophysiotropic TRHergic neurons as metabolic integrators during exercise stress. Multiple hormonal systems including ghrelin, leptin, glucose, insulin, and cortisol are activated to manage substrate mobilizations and utilization.
  • Preservation of cardiovascular homeostasis, and fluid and electrolyte balance is heavily reliant on vasoactive hormones, such as antidiuretic hormone, atrial natriuretic peptide, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone, and prostaglandins, during exercise.

Cite This Article

APA
Ferlazzo A, Cravana C, Fazio E, Medica P. (2020). The different hormonal system during exercise stress coping in horses. Vet World, 13(5), 847-859. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2020.847-859

Publication

Veterinary world
ISSN: 0972-8988
NlmUniqueID: 101504872
Country: India
Language: English
Volume: 13
Issue: 5
Pages: 847-859

Researcher Affiliations

Ferlazzo, Adriana
  • Department of Veterinary Sciences, Unit of Veterinary Physiology, Polo Universitario Annunziata, Messina University, 98168 Messina, Italy.
Cravana, Cristina
  • Department of Veterinary Sciences, Unit of Veterinary Physiology, Polo Universitario Annunziata, Messina University, 98168 Messina, Italy.
Fazio, Esterina
  • Department of Veterinary Sciences, Unit of Veterinary Physiology, Polo Universitario Annunziata, Messina University, 98168 Messina, Italy.
Medica, Pietro
  • Department of Veterinary Sciences, Unit of Veterinary Physiology, Polo Universitario Annunziata, Messina University, 98168 Messina, Italy.

References

This article includes 117 references
  1. Ferlazzo A, Fazio E. Endocrinological variables in blood and plasma.. 1997 pp. 30–43.
  2. Ferlazzo A, Fazio E, Medica P. Hormonas y ejercicio.. 2007 pp. 153–164.
  3. McKeever K.H, Gordon M.B. Endocrine alterations in the equine athlete.. 2004 pp. 793–814.
  4. Ferlazzo A, Cravana C, Fazio E, Medica P. Is there an interplay between the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid and the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axes during exercise-stress coping in horses?. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2018;62(3):85–97.
  5. Ferlazzo A, Cravana C, Fazio E, Medica P. The contribution of total and free iodothyronines to welfare maintenance and management stress coping in Ruminants and Equines: Physiological ranges and reference values.. Res Vet Sci 2018 Jun;118:134-143.
    pubmed: 29428703doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2018.01.025google scholar: lookup
  6. Mastorakos G, Pavlatou M. Exercise as a stress model and the interplay between the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal and the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axes.. Horm Metab Res 2005 Sep;37(9):577-84.
    pubmed: 16175498doi: 10.1055/s-2005-870426google scholar: lookup
  7. Bartolomé E, Cockram M.S. Potential effects of stress on the performance of sport horses.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2016;40(5):84–93.
  8. Negro S, Bartolomé E, Molina A, Solé M, Gómez MD, Valera M. Stress level effects on sport performance during trotting races in Spanish Trotter Horses.. Res Vet Sci 2018 Jun;118:86-90.
    pubmed: 29421489doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2018.01.017google scholar: lookup
  9. Hall C, Randle H, Pearson G, Preshaw L, Waran N. Assessing equine emotional state.. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2018;205(1):183–193.
  10. McBride SD, Mills DS. Psychological factors affecting equine performance.. BMC Vet Res 2012 Sep 27;8:180.
    pmc: PMC3514365pubmed: 23016987doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-8-180google scholar: lookup
  11. McKeever KH. The endocrine system and the challenge of exercise.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2002 Aug;18(2):321-53, vii.
    pubmed: 15635911doi: 10.1016/s0749-0739(02)00005-6google scholar: lookup
  12. Hyyppä S. Endocrinal responses in exercising horses.. Livest. Prod. Sci. 2005;92(2):113–121.
  13. de Graaf-Roelfsema E, Keizer HA, van Breda E, Wijnberg ID, van der Kolk JH. Hormonal responses to acute exercise, training and overtraining. A review with emphasis on the horse.. Vet Q 2007 Sep;29(3):82-101.
    pubmed: 17970286doi: 10.1080/01652176.2007.9695232google scholar: lookup
  14. McKeever K.H, Arent S.M, Davitt P.M. Endocrine and immune responses to exercise and training.. 2014 pp. 88–107.
  15. Ferlazzo A, Fazio E, Cravana C, Medica P. The role of circulating β-endorphin in different stress models in Equines:A review.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2018;71(12):98–104.
  16. Medica P, Giunta RP, Bruschetta G, Ferlazzo AM. The Influence of Training and Simulated Race on Horse Plasma Serotonin Levels.. J Equine Vet Sci 2020 Jan;84:102818.
    pubmed: 31864456doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2019.102818google scholar: lookup
  17. Borstel U.K.V, Visser E.K, Hall C. Indicators of stress in equitation.. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2017;90(5):43–56.
  18. Broom D.M. Cognitive ability and awareness in domestic animals and decisions about obligations to animals.. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2010;126(1-2):1–11.
  19. Broom D.M. Sentience and Animal Welfare.. 2014 p. 200.
  20. Fazio E, Medica P, Cravana C, Pellizzotto R, Fragalà S, Ferlazzo A. Dynamics of total and free iodothyronines of jumping horses on the responses to competition and transport.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2015;35(1):49–53.
  21. Fazio E, Medica P, Cravana C, Ferlazzo A. Comparative effects of simulated and conventional transportations on the thyroid response of stallions.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2015;35(12):894–900.
  22. Medica P, Bruschetta G, Cravana C, Ferlazzo A, Fazio E. Effect of transportation on the sympatho-adrenal system responses in horses.. Res Vet Sci 2019 Aug;125:401-404.
    pubmed: 29126628doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2017.10.001google scholar: lookup
  23. Bali A, Jaggi AS. Clinical experimental stress studies: methods and assessment.. Rev Neurosci 2015;26(5):555-79.
    pubmed: 26020552doi: 10.1515/revneuro-2015-0004google scholar: lookup
  24. Jellyman JK, Valenzuela OA, Fowden AL. HORSE SPECIES SYMPOSIUM: Glucocorticoid programming of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and metabolic function: Animal studies from mouse to horse.. J Anim Sci 2015 Jul;93(7):3245-60.
    pubmed: 26439993doi: 10.2527/jas.2014-8612google scholar: lookup
  25. Reyes BA, Zitnik G, Foster C, Van Bockstaele EJ, Valentino RJ. Social Stress Engages Neurochemically-Distinct Afferents to the Rat Locus Coeruleus Depending on Coping Strategy.. eNeuro 2015 Nov-Dec;2(6).
    pmc: PMC4660134pubmed: 26634226doi: 10.1523/eneuro.0042-15.2015google scholar: lookup
  26. González O, González E, Sánchez C, Pinto J, González I, Enríquez O, Martínez R, Filgueira G, White A. Effect of exercise on erythrocyte beta-adrenergic receptors and plasma concentrations of catecholamines and thyroid hormones in Thoroughbred horses.. Equine Vet J 1998 Jan;30(1):72-8.
    pubmed: 9458402doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1998.tb04091.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  27. Nagata S, Takeda F, Kurosawa M, Mima K, Hiraga A, Kai M, Taya K. Plasma adrenocorticotropin, cortisol and catecholamines response to various exercises.. Equine Vet J Suppl 1999 Jul;(30):570-4.
    pubmed: 10659320doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05286.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  28. Mckeever K.H. Sympatholytics and sympathomimetics.. 1993 pp. 1–13.
  29. Thornton JR. Hormonal responses to exercise and training.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 1985 Dec;1(3):477-96.
    pubmed: 3904941doi: 10.1016/s0749-0739(17)30746-0google scholar: lookup
  30. Jimenez M, Hinchcliff KW, Farris JW. Catecholamine and cortisol responses of horses to incremental exertion.. Vet Res Commun 1998 Feb;22(2):107-18.
    pubmed: 9563169doi: 10.1023/a:1006027429526google scholar: lookup
  31. Kurosawa M, Nagata S, Takeda F, Mima K, Hiraga A, Kai M, Taya K. Plasma catecholamine, adrenocorticotropin and cortisol responses to exhaustive incremental treadmill exercise of the Thoroughbred horse.. J. Equine Sci. 1998;9(1):9–18.
  32. Baragli P, Sgorbini M, Casini L, Ducci M, Sighieri C. Early evidence of the anticipatory response of plasma catecholamine in equine exercise.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2011;31(2):85–88.
  33. Cuniberti B, Badino P, Odore R, Girardi C, Re G. Effects induced by exercise on lymphocyte β-adrenergic receptors and plasma catecholamine levels in performance horses.. Res Vet Sci 2012 Feb;92(1):116-20.
    pubmed: 21168179doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.11.002google scholar: lookup
  34. Gandini G, Bargossi A.M, Boari A, Bernagozzi V, Venturoli M. Variazioni delle catecolamine nel cavallo sportivo dopo l'esecuzione di diversi tipi di esercizio.. Riv. SIDI. 1997;2(1):43–50.
  35. Foreman J.H, Ferlazzo A. Physiological responses to stress in the horse.. Pferdeheilkunde. 1996;12(4):401–404.
  36. Lindner A, Fazio E, Ferlazzo A.M, Medica P, Ferlazzo A. Plasma cortisol concentration in Thoroughbred horses during and after standardized exercise tests on a treadmill and effects of conditioning on basal cortisol values.. Pferdeheilkunde. 2000;16(5):502–510.
  37. Ferlazzo A, Medica P, Cravana C, Fazio E. Circulating β-endorphin, adrenocorticotropin, and cortisol concentrations of horses before and after competitive show jumping with different fence heights.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2012;32(11):740–746.
  38. Goldfarb AH, Jamurtas AZ. Beta-endorphin response to exercise. An update.. Sports Med 1997 Jul;24(1):8-16.
    pubmed: 9257407doi: 10.2165/00007256-199724010-00002google scholar: lookup
  39. McCarthy RN, Jeffcott LB, Funder JW, Fullerton M, Clarke IJ. Plasma beta-endorphin and adrenocorticotrophin in young horses in training.. Aust Vet J 1991 Nov;68(11):359-61.
    pubmed: 1663738doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1991.tb00736.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  40. Mehl ML, Schott HC 2nd, Sarkar DK, Bayly WM. Effects of exercise intensity and duration on plasma beta-endorphin concentrations in horses.. Am J Vet Res 2000 Aug;61(8):969-73.
    pubmed: 10951992doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2000.61.969google scholar: lookup
  41. Golland LC, Evans DL, Stone GM, Tyler-McGowan CM, Hodgson DR, Rose RJ. Maximal exercise transiently disrupts hormonal secretory patterns in standardbred geldings.. Equine Vet J Suppl 1999 Jul;(30):581-5.
    pubmed: 10659322doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05288.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  42. Marc M, Parvizi N, Ellendorff F, Kallweit E, Elsaesser F. Plasma cortisol and ACTH concentrations in the warmblood horse in response to a standardized treadmill exercise test as physiological markers for evaluation of training status.. J Anim Sci 2000 Jul;78(7):1936-46.
    pubmed: 10907837doi: 10.2527/2000.7871936xgoogle scholar: lookup
  43. Malinowski K, Shock EJ, Rochelle P, Kearns CF, Guirnalda PD, McKeever KH. Plasma beta-endorphin, cortisol and immune responses to acute exercise are altered by age and exercise training in horses.. Equine Vet J Suppl 2006 Aug;(36):267-73.
    pubmed: 17402430doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2006.tb05551.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  44. Cayado P, Muñoz-Escassi B, Domínguez C, Manley W, Olabarri B, Sánchez de la Muela M, Castejon F, Marañon G, Vara E. Hormone response to training and competition in athletic horses.. Equine Vet J Suppl 2006 Aug;(36):274-8.
    pubmed: 17402431doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2006.tb05552.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  45. Cravana C, Medica P, Ragonese G, Fazio E. Influence of training and competitive sessions on peripheral β-endorphin levels in training show jumping horses.. Vet World 2017 Jan;10(1):67-73.
    pmc: PMC5301181pubmed: 28246449doi: 10.14202/vetworld.2017.67-73google scholar: lookup
  46. Williams RJ, Marlin DJ, Smith N, Harris RC, Haresign W, Davies Morel MC. Effects of cool and hot humid environmental conditions on neuroendocrine responses of horses to treadmill exercise.. Vet J 2002 Jul;164(1):54-63.
    pubmed: 12359485doi: 10.1053/tvjl.2002.0721google scholar: lookup
  47. Hada T, Onaka T, Takahashi T, Hiraga A, Yagi K. Effects of novelty stress on neuroendocrine activities and running performance in thoroughbred horses.. J Neuroendocrinol 2003 Jul;15(7):638-48.
    pubmed: 12787048doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2826.2003.01042.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  48. Medica P, Cravana C, Fazio E, Ferlazzo A. 24-hour endocrine profiles of Quarter horses under resting conditions.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2011;31(1):35–40.
  49. Fazio E, Medica P, Cravana C, Molinari P, Ferlazzo A. Effect of experience on adrenocortical and thyroid responses of Arabian horses to gymkhana games.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2014;34(6):799–804.
  50. Hydbring E, Nyman S, Dahlborn K. Changes in plasma cortisol, plasma b-endorphin, heart rate, haematocrit and plasma protein concentration in horses during restraint and use of a naso-gastric tube.. Pferdeheilkunde. 1996;12(4):423–427.
  51. Cravana C, Medica P, Prestopino M, Fazio E, Ferlazzo A. Effects of competitive and noncompetitive showjumping on total and free iodothyronines, β-endorphin, ACTH and cortisol levels of horses.. Equine Vet J Suppl 2010 Nov;(38):179-84.
    pubmed: 21059003doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00264.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  52. Graves EA, Schott HC 2nd, Marteniuk JV, Refsal KR, Nachreiner RF. Thyroid hormone responses to endurance exercise.. Equine Vet J Suppl 2006 Aug;(36):32-6.
    pubmed: 17402388doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2006.tb05509.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  53. Ferlazzo A, Fazio E, Cravana C, Medica P. Changes of circulating total and free iodothyronines in horses after competitive show jumping with different fence height.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2014;34(6):876–881.
  54. Breuhaus BA. Serum Thyroid Hormone and Thyrotropin Concentrations in Adult Horses as They Age.. J Equine Vet Sci 2018 Sep;68:21-25.
    pubmed: 31256883doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2018.04.006google scholar: lookup
  55. Breuhaus BA. Thyroid Hormone and Thyrotropin Concentrations and Responses to Thyrotropin-Stimulating Hormone in Horses with PPID Compared with Age-Matched Normal Horses.. J Equine Vet Sci 2019 Apr;75:35-40.
    pubmed: 31002090doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2019.01.008google scholar: lookup
  56. Louzada RA, Carvalho DP. Similarities and Differences in the Peripheral Actions of Thyroid Hormones and Their Metabolites.. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2018;9:394.
    pmc: PMC6060242pubmed: 30072951doi: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00394google scholar: lookup
  57. Gereben B, Zeöld A, Dentice M, Salvatore D, Bianco AC. Activation and inactivation of thyroid hormone by deiodinases: local action with general consequences.. Cell Mol Life Sci 2008 Feb;65(4):570-90.
    pubmed: 17989921doi: 10.1007/s00018-007-7396-0google scholar: lookup
  58. Fekete C, Lechan RM. Central regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis under physiological and pathophysiological conditions.. Endocr Rev 2014 Apr;35(2):159-94.
    pmc: PMC3963261pubmed: 24423980doi: 10.1210/er.2013-1087google scholar: lookup
  59. McAninch EA, Bianco AC. Thyroid hormone signaling in energy homeostasis and energy metabolism.. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2014 Apr;1311:77-87.
    pmc: PMC4451242pubmed: 24697152doi: 10.1111/nyas.12374google scholar: lookup
  60. Ortiga-Carvalho TM, Chiamolera MI, Pazos-Moura CC, Wondisford FE. Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis.. Compr Physiol 2016 Jun 13;6(3):1387-428.
    pubmed: 27347897doi: 10.1002/cphy.c150027google scholar: lookup
  61. Cokkinos DV, Chryssanthopoulos S. Thyroid hormones and cardiac remodeling.. Heart Fail Rev 2016 Jul;21(4):365-72.
    pubmed: 27138258doi: 10.1007/s10741-016-9554-7google scholar: lookup
  62. Salvatore D, Simonides WS, Dentice M, Zavacki AM, Larsen PR. Thyroid hormones and skeletal muscle--new insights and potential implications.. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2014 Apr;10(4):206-14.
    pmc: PMC4037849pubmed: 24322650doi: 10.1038/nrendo.2013.238google scholar: lookup
  63. Bloise FF, Cordeiro A, Ortiga-Carvalho TM. Role of thyroid hormone in skeletal muscle physiology.. J Endocrinol 2018 Jan;236(1):R57-R68.
    pubmed: 29051191doi: 10.1530/joe-16-0611google scholar: lookup
  64. Mullur R, Liu YY, Brent GA. Thyroid hormone regulation of metabolism.. Physiol Rev 2014 Apr;94(2):355-82.
    pmc: PMC4044302pubmed: 24692351doi: 10.1152/physrev.00030.2013google scholar: lookup
  65. Singh BK, Sinha RA, Yen PM. Novel Transcriptional Mechanisms for Regulating Metabolism by Thyroid Hormone.. Int J Mol Sci 2018 Oct 22;19(10).
    pmc: PMC6214012pubmed: 30360449doi: 10.3390/ijms19103284google scholar: lookup
  66. Obregon MJ. Adipose tissues and thyroid hormones.. Front Physiol 2014;5:479.
    pmc: PMC4263094pubmed: 25566082doi: 10.3389/fphys.2014.00479google scholar: lookup
  67. Cicatiello AG, Di Girolamo D, Dentice M. Metabolic Effects of the Intracellular Regulation of Thyroid Hormone: Old Players, New Concepts.. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2018;9:474.
    pmc: PMC6141630pubmed: 30254607doi: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00474google scholar: lookup
  68. Elliott-Sale KJ, Tenforde AS, Parziale AL, Holtzman B, Ackerman KE. Endocrine Effects of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport.. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2018 Jul 1;28(4):335-349.
    pubmed: 30008240doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.2018-0127google scholar: lookup
  69. Ciloglu F, Peker I, Pehlivan A, Karacabey K, Ilhan N, Saygin O, Ozmerdivenli R. Exercise intensity and its effects on thyroid hormones.. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 2005 Dec;26(6):830-4.
    pubmed: 16380698
  70. Joseph-Bravo P, Jaimes-Hoy L, Charli JL. Regulation of TRH neurons and energy homeostasis-related signals under stress.. J Endocrinol 2015 Mar;224(3):R139-59.
    pubmed: 25563352doi: 10.1530/joe-14-0593google scholar: lookup
  71. Uribe RM, Jaimes-Hoy L, Ramírez-Martínez C, García-Vázquez A, Romero F, Cisneros M, Cote-Vélez A, Charli JL, Joseph-Bravo P. Voluntary exercise adapts the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis in male rats.. Endocrinology 2014 May;155(5):2020-30.
    pubmed: 24605825doi: 10.1210/en.2013-1724google scholar: lookup
  72. Taylor E, Heyland A. Evolution of thyroid hormone signaling in animals: Non-genomic and genomic modes of action.. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2017 Dec 25;459:14-20.
    pubmed: 28549993doi: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.05.019google scholar: lookup
  73. Bayly W, Andrea R, Smith B, Stenslie J, Bergsma G. Thyroid hormone concentrations in racing Thoroughbreds.. Pferdeheilkunde. 1996;12(1):534–538.
  74. Ferlazzo A, Medica P, Cravana C, Fazio E. Effects of fence height on total and free iodothyronine changes in horses after experimental show jumping sessions.. Equine Vet J Suppl 2010 Nov;(38):110-5.
    pubmed: 21058991doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00252.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  75. Medica P, Cravana C, Fazio E, Ferlazzo A. Hormonal responses of quarter horses to a 6-week conventional western-riding training programme.. Livest. Sci. 2011;140(1-3):262–267.
  76. McKeever K.H, Hinchcliff K.W. Neuroendocrine control of blood volume, blood pressure, and cardiovascular function in horses.. Equine Vet. J. 1995;18(Suppl):77–81.
  77. McKeever KH. Exercise physiology of the older horse.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2002 Dec;18(3):469-90.
    pubmed: 12516929doi: 10.1016/s0749-0739(02)00029-9google scholar: lookup
  78. Kokkonen UM, Pösö AR, Hyyppä S, Huttunen P, Leppäluoto J. Exercise-induced changes in atrial peptides in relation to neuroendocrine responses and fluid balance in the horse.. J Vet Med A Physiol Pathol Clin Med 2002 Apr;49(3):144-50.
    pubmed: 12019955doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0442.2002.00428.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  79. Trachsel DS, Grenacher B, Schwarzwald CC. Plasma atrial/A-type natriuretic peptide (ANP) concentration in horses with various heart diseases.. J Vet Cardiol 2015 Sep;17(3):216-28.
    pubmed: 26385426doi: 10.1016/j.jvc.2015.06.003google scholar: lookup
  80. Donovan DC, Jackson CA, Colahan PT, Norton N, Hurley DJ. Exercise-induced alterations in pro-inflammatory cytokines and prostaglandin F2alpha in horses.. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2007 Aug 15;118(3-4):263-9.
    pubmed: 17617470doi: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2007.05.015google scholar: lookup
  81. McKeever K.H, Wickler S.J, Smith T.R, Poole D.C. Effects of high altitude and exercise on plasma erythropoietin in equids.. Comp. Exerc. Physiol. 2010;7(4):193–199.
  82. Maeda S, Miyauchi T, Waku T, Koda Y, Kono I, Goto K, Matsuda M. Plasma endothelin-1 level in athletes after exercise in a hot environment: exercise-induced dehydration contributes to increases in plasma endothelin-1.. Life Sci 1996;58(15):1259-68.
    pubmed: 8614279doi: 10.1016/0024-3205(96)00087-2google scholar: lookup
  83. McKeever KH, Antas LA, Kearns CF. Endothelin response during and after exercise in horses.. Vet J 2002 Jul;164(1):38-46.
    pubmed: 12359483doi: 10.1053/tvjl.2002.0706google scholar: lookup
  84. Rossi NF. Effect of endothelin-3 on vasopressin release in vitro and water excretion in vivo in Long-Evans rats.. J Physiol 1993 Feb;461:501-11.
    pmc: PMC1175269pubmed: 8350273doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1993.sp019525google scholar: lookup
  85. Rubanyl G.M, Shepherd J.T. Hypothetical role of endothelin in the control of the cardiovascular system.. 1992 pp. 258–271.
  86. Richter EA, Emmeluth C, Bie P, Helge J, Kiens B. Biphasic response of plasma endothelin-1 concentration to exhausting submaximal exercise in man.. Clin Physiol 1994 Jul;14(4):379-84.
    pubmed: 7955935doi: 10.1111/j.1475-097x.1994.tb00396.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  87. Manohar M, Hutchens E, Coney E. Pulmonary haemodynamics in the exercising horse and their relationship to exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage.. Br Vet J 1993 Sep-Oct;149(5):419-28.
    pubmed: 8298955doi: 10.1016/s0007-1935(05)80108-3google scholar: lookup
  88. Pascoe J.R. Exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage:A unifying concept.. Proc. Am. Assoc. Equine Pract. 1996;42(1):220–226.
  89. Chiba S, Kanematsu S, Murakami K, Satoh A, Asahina M, Numakunai S, Goryo M, Ohshima K, Okada K. Serum parathyroid hormone and calcitonin levels in racehorses with fracture.. J Vet Med Sci 2000 Apr;62(4):361-5.
    pubmed: 10823721doi: 10.1292/jvms.62.361google scholar: lookup
  90. Price JS, Jackson BF, Gray JA, Harris PA, Wright IM, Pfeiffer DU, Robins SP, Eastell R, Ricketts SW. Biochemical markers of bone metabolism in growing thoroughbreds: a longitudinal study.. Res Vet Sci 2001 Aug;71(1):37-44.
    pubmed: 11666146doi: 10.1053/rvsc.2001.0482google scholar: lookup
  91. Vervuert I, Coenen M, Wedemeyer U, Chrobok C, Harmeyer J, Sporleder HP. Calcium homeostasis and intact plasma parathyroid hormone during exercise and training in young Standardbred horses.. Equine Vet J 2002 Nov;34(7):713-8.
    pubmed: 12455843doi: 10.2746/042516402776250379google scholar: lookup
  92. Aguilera-Tejero E, Estepa JC, López I, Bas S, Garfia B, Rodríguez M. Plasma ionized calcium and parathyroid hormone concentrations in horses after endurance rides.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2001 Aug 15;219(4):488-90.
    pubmed: 11518176doi: 10.2460/javma.2001.219.488google scholar: lookup
  93. Gordon ME, McKeever KH, Bokman S, Betros CL, Manso-Filho H, Liburt N, Streltsova J. Interval exercise alters feed intake as well as leptin and ghrelin concentrations in standardbred mares.. Equine Vet J Suppl 2006 Aug;(36):596-605.
    pubmed: 17402490doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2006.tb05611.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  94. Gordon ME, McKeever KH, Betros CL, Manso Filho HC. Plasma leptin, ghrelin and adiponectin concentrations in young fit racehorses versus mature unfit standardbreds.. Vet J 2007 Jan;173(1):91-100.
    pubmed: 16377220doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2005.11.004google scholar: lookup
  95. Gordon ME, McKeever KH, Betros CL, Manso Filho HC. Exercise-induced alterations in plasma concentrations of ghrelin, adiponectin, leptin, glucose, insulin, and cortisol in horses.. Vet J 2007 May;173(3):532-40.
    pubmed: 16516509doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2006.01.003google scholar: lookup
  96. Gordon M.E, Thompson D.L, McKeever K.H. Effects of exogenous ghrelin infusion on feed intake and metabolic parameters of energy homeostasis in standardbred mares.. Comp. Exerc. Physiol. 2014;10(2):113–122.
  97. Kearns CF, McKeever KH, Roegner V, Brady SM, Malinowski K. Adiponectin and leptin are related to fat mass in horses.. Vet J 2006 Nov;172(3):460-5.
    pubmed: 15996495doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2005.05.002google scholar: lookup
  98. Berg U, Bang P. Exercise and circulating insulin-like growth factor I.. Horm Res 2004;62 Suppl 1:50-8.
    pubmed: 15761233doi: 10.1159/000080759google scholar: lookup
  99. Bamford NJ, Potter SJ, Baskerville CL, Harris PA, Bailey SR. Influence of dietary restriction and low-intensity exercise on weight loss and insulin sensitivity in obese equids.. J Vet Intern Med 2019 Jan;33(1):280-286.
    pmc: PMC6335535pubmed: 30520164doi: 10.1111/jvim.15374google scholar: lookup
  100. Powell DM, Reedy SE, Sessions DR, Fitzgerald BP. Effect of short-term exercise training on insulin sensitivity in obese and lean mares.. Equine Vet J Suppl 2002 Sep;(34):81-4.
    pubmed: 12405664doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2002.tb05396.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  101. Malinowski K, Betros CL, Flora L, Kearns CF, McKeever KH. Effect of training on age-related changes in plasma insulin and glucose.. Equine Vet J Suppl 2002 Sep;(34):147-53.
    pubmed: 12405676doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2002.tb05408.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  102. Kędzierski W. Changes in plasma leptin concentration during different types of exercises performed by horses.. Animal 2014 Sep;8(9):1456-61.
    pubmed: 25130711doi: 10.1017/s1751731114001220google scholar: lookup
  103. Kędzierski W. The effect of exercise on plasma leptin concentrations in horses.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2016;47(1):36–41.
  104. Cartmill JA, Thompson DL Jr, Storer WA, Gentry LR, Huff NK. Endocrine responses in mares and geldings with high body condition scores grouped by high vs. low resting leptin concentrations.. J Anim Sci 2003 Sep;81(9):2311-21.
    pubmed: 12968707doi: 10.2527/2003.8192311xgoogle scholar: lookup
  105. Jensen R.B, Blache D, Knudsen K.E.B, Austbø D, Tauson A.H. The effect of diet and exercise on plasma metabolite and hormone concentrations in horses measured before and after exercise.. Comp. Exerc. Physiol. 2017;13(2):97–104.
  106. Moore J.L, Siciliano P.D, Pratt-Phillips S.E. Effects of exercise on voluntary intake, morphometric measurements, and oral sugar test response in horses on ad libitum forage.. Comp. Exerc. Physiol. 2019;15(3):209–218.
  107. Robyn J, Plancke L, Boshuizen B, de Meeûs C, de Bruijn M, Delesalle C. Substrate use in horses during exercise the “fasted”compared to the postprandial state.. Vlaams Diergeneeskd. Tijdschr. 2017;86(5):275–284.
  108. Farris JW, Hinchcliff KW, McKeever KH, Lamb DR, Thompson DL. Effect of tryptophan and of glucose on exercise capacity of horses.. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1998 Sep;85(3):807-16.
    pubmed: 9729551doi: 10.1152/jappl.1998.85.3.807google scholar: lookup
  109. Reeta Pösö A, Hyyppä S. Metabolic and hormonal changes after exercise in relation to muscle glycogen concentrations.. Equine Vet J Suppl 1999 Jul;(30):332-6.
    pubmed: 10659278doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05244.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  110. Lucke JN, Hall GN. Further studies on the metabolic effects of long distance riding: Golden Horseshoe Ride 1979.. Equine Vet J 1980 Oct;12(4):189-92.
    pubmed: 7439143doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1980.tb03424.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  111. Geor RJ, Hinchcliff KW, Sams RA. beta-adrenergic blockade augments glucose utilization in horses during graded exercise.. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2000 Sep;89(3):1086-98.
    pubmed: 10956355doi: 10.1152/jappl.2000.89.3.1086google scholar: lookup
  112. Thompson DL Jr, Rahmanian MS, DePew CL, Burleigh DW, DeSouza CJ, Colborn DR. Growth hormone in mares and stallions: pulsatile secretion, response to growth hormone-releasing hormone, and effects of exercise, sexual stimulation, and pharmacological agents.. J Anim Sci 1992 Apr;70(4):1201-7.
    pubmed: 1582951doi: 10.2527/1992.7041201xgoogle scholar: lookup
  113. Thompson DL Jr, DePew CL, Ortiz A, Sticker LS, Rahmanian MS. Growth hormone and prolactin concentrations in plasma of horses: sex differences and the effects of acute exercise and administration of growth hormone-releasing hormone.. J Anim Sci 1994 Nov;72(11):2911-8.
    pubmed: 7730185doi: 10.2527/1994.72112911xgoogle scholar: lookup
  114. Thompson D.L, Jr, Miller-Auwerda P.A, Sandberg L. Growth hormone and prolactin secretion in horses:Effects of multiple and extended exercise bouts, β-hydroxy-β-methyl butyrate feeding, and arginine and thyrotropin-releasing hormone pretreatment.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2017;49(2):31–39.
  115. Popot MA, Bobin S, Bonnaire Y, Delahaut PH, Closset J. IGF -I plasma concentrations in non-treated horses and horses administered with methionyl equine somatotropin.. Res Vet Sci 2001 Dec;71(3):167-73.
    pubmed: 11798290doi: 10.1053/rvsc.2001.0505google scholar: lookup
  116. Noble GK, Houghton E, Roberts CJ, Faustino-Kemp J, de Kock SS, Swanepoel BC, Sillence MN. Effect of exercise, training, circadian rhythm, age, and sex on insulin-like growth factor-1 in the horse.. J Anim Sci 2007 Jan;85(1):163-71.
    pubmed: 17179552doi: 10.2527/jas.2006-210google scholar: lookup
  117. Urhausen A, Gabriel H, Kindermann W. Blood hormones as markers of training stress and overtraining.. Sports Med 1995 Oct;20(4):251-76.
    pubmed: 8584849doi: 10.2165/00007256-199520040-00004google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 16 times.
  1. Olvera-Maneu S, Carbajal A, Serres-Corral P, López-Béjar M. Cortisol Variations to Estimate the Physiological Stress Response in Horses at a Traditional Equestrian Event. Animals (Basel) 2023 Jan 24;13(3).
    doi: 10.3390/ani13030396pubmed: 36766285google scholar: lookup
  2. Topczewska J, Krupa W, Sokołowicz Z, Lechowska J. Does Experience Make Hucul Horses More Resistant to Stress? A Pilot Study. Animals (Basel) 2021 Nov 24;11(12).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11123345pubmed: 34944127google scholar: lookup
  3. Contalbrigo L, Borgi M, De Santis M, Collacchi B, Tuozzi A, Toson M, Redaelli V, Odore R, Vercelli C, Stefani A, Luzi F, Valle E, Cirulli F. Equine-Assisted Interventions (EAIs) for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): Behavioural and Physiological Indices of Stress in Domestic Horses (Equus caballus) during Riding Sessions. Animals (Basel) 2021 May 27;11(6).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11061562pubmed: 34071859google scholar: lookup
  4. Cappelli K, Amadori M, Mecocci S, Miglio A, Antognoni MT, Razzuoli E. Immune Response in Young Thoroughbred Racehorses under Training. Animals (Basel) 2020 Oct 5;10(10).
    doi: 10.3390/ani10101809pubmed: 33027949google scholar: lookup
  5. Hennes N, Tutin L, Foury A, Vancassel S, Bourguignon H, Duluard A, Ruet A, Lansade L. Exploring the association between stress-related hormonal changes, behaviours and facial movements after an interval training exercise in French Standardbred. PLoS One 2025;20(11):e0328430.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0328430pubmed: 41191577google scholar: lookup
  6. Krieber J, Nowak AC, Geissberger J, Illichmann O, Macho-Maschler S, Palme R, Dengler F. Fecal Cortisol Metabolites Indicate Increased Stress Levels in Horses During Breaking-In: A Pilot Study. Animals (Basel) 2025 Jun 7;15(12).
    doi: 10.3390/ani15121693pubmed: 40564245google scholar: lookup
  7. Cravana C, Medica P, Fazio E, Satué K, Brancato G, La Fauci D, Bruschetta G. Circulating ACTH and Cortisol Investigations in Standardbred Racehorses Under Training and Racing Sessions. Vet Sci 2025 May 19;12(5).
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci12050493pubmed: 40431586google scholar: lookup
  8. Shuert CR, Pomeroy PP, Twiss SD. Stress-coping styles are associated with energy budgets and variability in energy management strategies in a capital breeder. Proc Biol Sci 2025 May;292(2046):20241787.
    doi: 10.1098/rspb.2024.1787pubmed: 40359978google scholar: lookup
  9. Jung Y, Yoon M. The Effects of Human-Horse Interactions on Oxytocin and Cortisol Levels in Humans and Horses. Animals (Basel) 2025 Mar 21;15(7).
    doi: 10.3390/ani15070905pubmed: 40218299google scholar: lookup
  10. Mehrazin H, Sakha M, Safi S. Effects of Age, Sex, and Exercise on Measurement of Serum CTnI Levels and Some Parameters Related to the Cardiovascular Capacity of Caspian Horses. Vet Med Sci 2025 Mar;11(2):e70202.
    doi: 10.1002/vms3.70202pubmed: 40065591google scholar: lookup
  11. Blum S, Gisler J, Dalla Costa E, Montavon S, Spadavecchia C. Investigating conditioned pain modulation in horses: can the lip-twitch be used as a conditioning stimulus?. Front Pain Res (Lausanne) 2024;5:1463688.
    doi: 10.3389/fpain.2024.1463688pubmed: 39512387google scholar: lookup
  12. Satué K, Fazio E, Velasco-Martínez MG, Fauci D, Cravana C, Medica P. Effect of age on amplitude of circulating catecholamine's change of healthy cyclic mares. Vet Res Commun 2024 Aug;48(4):2863-2868.
    doi: 10.1007/s11259-024-10443-8pubmed: 38913240google scholar: lookup
  13. Ayodele BA, Pagel CN, Mackie EJ, Armour F, Yamada S, Zahra P, Courtman N, Whitton RC, Hitchens PL. Differences in bone turnover markers and injury risks between local and international horses: A Victorian Spring Racing Carnival study. Equine Vet J 2025 Mar;57(2):333-346.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.14098pubmed: 38634210google scholar: lookup
  14. Giers J, Bartel A, Kirsch K, Müller SF, Horstmann S, Gehlen H. Blood-based assessment of oxidative stress, inflammation, endocrine and metabolic adaptations in eventing horses accounting for plasma volume shift after exercise. Vet Med Sci 2024 May;10(3):e1409.
    doi: 10.1002/vms3.1409pubmed: 38516822google scholar: lookup
  15. Potier JF, Louzier V. Evaluation of stress markers in horses during hippotherapy sessions in comparison to being ridden by beginners. Anim Welf 2023;32:e10.
    doi: 10.1017/awf.2023.6pubmed: 38487430google scholar: lookup
  16. Rigby BR. Characterizing stress during animal interaction: a focus on the human endocrine response during equine-assisted services. Front Vet Sci 2023;10:1303354.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1303354pubmed: 38188717google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,970 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.