FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Animals (Basel) / The Effects of Human-Horse Interactions on Oxytocin and Cort...
Animals : an open access journal from MDPI2025; 15(7); 905; doi: 10.3390/ani15070905

The Effects of Human-Horse Interactions on Oxytocin and Cortisol Levels in Humans and Horses.

Abstract: Therapeutic programs involving human-horse interactions are gaining popularity as a means of enhancing human well-being. Understanding the physiological responses of both humans and horses during these interactions is essential for evaluating the effectiveness of such programs. This study examined the effects of specific interactive activities on both humans and horses by monitoring changes in oxytocin and cortisol levels. Six participants and six horses took part in the study. The participants engaged in three distinct activities, each lasting 15 min: (1) resting alone without the horse (resting), (2) standing near the horse without physical contact (standing), and (3) gently rubbing the horse's neck and withers (rubbing). Saliva samples from the participants and blood samples from the horses were collected at three time points for each activity: T0 (before the activity), T1 (at the end of the activity), and T2 (15 min after the activity ended). The results indicated that oxytocin levels significantly increased in horses at T2 following both the standing and rubbing activities, while cortisol levels remained unchanged in both humans and horses across all activities. These findings suggest that human-horse interactions, particularly standing and rubbing, may foster social bonding in horses without eliciting a stress response in either species.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2025-03-21 PubMed ID: 40218299PubMed Central: PMC11987743DOI: 10.3390/ani15070905Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research examines how human-horse interactions affect oxytocin (hormone linked to social bonding) and cortisol (stress hormone) levels in both humans and horses. It indicates that such interactions, particularly standing near the horse and gently rubbing its neck, increase oxytocin in horses, promoting social bonding without causing stress.

Research Methodology

  • The study involved six participants (humans) and six horses. The participants engaged in three distinct 15-minute activities: resting alone without a horse (resting), standing near a horse without physical contact (standing), and gently rubbing the horse’s neck and withers (rubbing).
  • The researchers collected saliva samples from the human participants and blood samples from the horses at three-time points for each activity: T0 (before the activity), T1 (at the end of the activity), and T2 (15 minutes after the activity ended).

Research Findings

  • The study found that the horses’ oxytocin levels increased significantly at the T2 time point (15 minutes after the end of the activity) in response to both the standing and rubbing activities. This suggests that just standing near a horse or gently rubbing it can enhance social bonding from the part of the horse.
  • The cortisol levels, which are usually associated with stress, remained unchanged in both the humans and the horses across all activities that were part of the study. This is indicative that the activities carried out during human-horse interactions in this study didn’t elicit a stress response from either the humans or the horses.

Implications of the Study

  • The findings could be important for improving therapeutic programs involving human-horse interactions. By integrating activities that increase social bonding from the horse’s perspective into these programs, the effectiveness of the therapy could potentially be enhanced.
  • The study also provides indicative evidence that activities like standing near a horse or rubbing the horse can be done without causing stress to either the human or the horse, making them safe and suitable for therapeutic programs.

Cite This Article

APA
Jung Y, Yoon M. (2025). The Effects of Human-Horse Interactions on Oxytocin and Cortisol Levels in Humans and Horses. Animals (Basel), 15(7), 905. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15070905

Publication

Animals : an open access journal from MDPI
ISSN: 2076-2615
NlmUniqueID: 101635614
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 15
Issue: 7
PII: 905

Researcher Affiliations

Jung, Youngwook
  • Department of Animal Science and Biotechnology, Kyungpook National University, Sangju 37224, Republic of Korea.
Yoon, Minjung
  • Department of Animal Science and Biotechnology, Kyungpook National University, Sangju 37224, Republic of Korea.
  • Department of Horse, Companion and Wild Animal Science, Kyungpook National University, Sangju 37224, Republic of Korea.
  • Research Institute for Innovative Animal Science, Kyungpook National University, Sangju 37224, Republic of Korea.

Grant Funding

  • RS-2023-NR077294 / National Research Foundation

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

This article includes 59 references
  1. Gee NR, Rodriguez KE, Fine AH, Trammell JP. Dogs Supporting Human Health and Well-Being: A Biopsychosocial Approach. Front. Vet. Sci. 2021;8:630465.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.630465pmc: PMC8042315pubmed: 33860004google scholar: lookup
  2. Pendry P, Carr AM, Roeter SM, Vandagriff JL. Experimental trial demonstrates effects of animal-assisted stress prevention program on college students’ positive and negative emotion. Hum.-Anim. Interact. Bull. 2018.
    doi: 10.1079/hai.2018.0004google scholar: lookup
  3. Molnar M, Ivancsik R, DiBlasio B, Nagy I. Examining the Effects of Rabbit-Assisted Interventions in the Classroom Environment. Animals 2019;10:26.
    doi: 10.3390/ani10010026pmc: PMC7022542pubmed: 31877670google scholar: lookup
  4. O’Haire ME, McKenzie SJ, McCune S, Slaughter V. Effects of Animal-Assisted Activities with Guinea Pigs in the Primary School Classroom. Anthrozoos 2013;26:445–458.
    doi: 10.2752/175303713X13697429463835pmc: PMC3832256pubmed: 24265514google scholar: lookup
  5. Pedersen I, Nordaunet T, Martinsen EW, Berget B, Braastad BO. Farm Animal-Assisted Intervention: Relationship between Work and Contact with Farm Animals and Change in Depression, Anxiety, and Self-Efficacy Among Persons with Clinical Depression. Issues Ment. Health Nurs. 2011;32:493–500.
    doi: 10.3109/01612840.2011.566982pubmed: 21767251google scholar: lookup
  6. Malinowski K, Yee C, Tevlin JM, Birks EK, Durando MM, Pournajafi-Nazarloo H, Cavaiola AA, McKeever KH. The effects of equine assisted therapy on plasma cortisol and oxytocin concentrations and heart rate variability in horses and measures of symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder in veterans. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2018;64:17–26.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2018.01.011pubmed: 30973147google scholar: lookup
  7. Crews D. The Bond between a Horse and a Human. Nat. Preced. 2009.
    doi: 10.1038/npre.2009.3454.1google scholar: lookup
  8. Baldwin AL, Rector BK, Alden AC. Physiological and Behavioral Benefits for People and Horses during Guided Interactions at an Assisted Living Residence. Behav. Sci. 2021;11:129.
    doi: 10.3390/bs11100129pmc: PMC8533143pubmed: 34677222google scholar: lookup
  9. Uvnas-Moberg K, Petersson M. Oxytocin, a mediator of anti-stress, well-being, social interaction, growth and healing. Z. Psychosom. Med. Psychother. 2005;51:57–80.
    doi: 10.13109/zptm.2005.51.1.57pubmed: 15834840google scholar: lookup
  10. Wang P, Yang H-P, Tian S, Wang L, Wang SC, Zhang F, Wang Y-F. Oxytocin-secreting system: A major part of the neuroendocrine center regulating immunologic activity. J. Neuroimmunol. 2015;289:152–161.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2015.11.001pubmed: 26616885google scholar: lookup
  11. Marsh N, Marsh AA, Lee MR, Hurlemann R. Oxytocin and the Neurobiology of Prosocial Behavior. Neuroscientist 2021;27:604–619.
    doi: 10.1177/1073858420960111pmc: PMC8640275pubmed: 32981445google scholar: lookup
  12. Rault JL, van den Munkhof M, Buisman-Pijlman FTA. Oxytocin as an Indicator of Psychological and Social Well-Being in Domesticated Animals: A Critical Review. Front. Psychol. 2017;8:1521.
    doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01521pmc: PMC5601408pubmed: 28955264google scholar: lookup
  13. Crespi BJ. Oxytocin, testosterone, and human social cognition. Biol. Rev. 2016;91:390–408.
    doi: 10.1111/brv.12175pubmed: 25631363google scholar: lookup
  14. Miller SC, Kennedy C, Devoe D, Hickey M, Nelson T, Kogan L. An Examination of Changes in Oxytocin Levels in Men and Women Before and After Interaction with a Bonded Dog. Anthrozoos 2009;22:31–42.
    doi: 10.2752/175303708X390455google scholar: lookup
  15. Nagasawa M, Kikusui T, Onaka T, Ohta M. Dog’s gaze at its owner increases owner’s urinary oxytocin during social interaction. Horm. Behav. 2009;55:434–441.
    doi: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.12.002pubmed: 19124024google scholar: lookup
  16. Odendaal JSJ, Meintjes RA. Neurophysiological correlates of affiliative behaviour between humans and dogs. Vet. J. 2003;165:296–301.
    doi: 10.1016/S1090-0233(02)00237-Xpubmed: 12672376google scholar: lookup
  17. Mostl E, Palme R. Hormones as indicators of stress. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 2002;23:67–74.
    doi: 10.1016/S0739-7240(02)00146-7pubmed: 12142227google scholar: lookup
  18. Benfield RD, Newton ER, Tanner CJ, Heitkemper MM. Cortisol as a Biomarker of Stress in Term Human Labor: Physiological and Methodological Issues. Biol. Res. Nurs. 2014;16:64–71.
    doi: 10.1177/1099800412471580pmc: PMC3904305pubmed: 23338011google scholar: lookup
  19. Cravana C, Fazio E, Ferlazzo A, Medica P. Therapeutic Riding Horses: Using a hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis measure to assess the physiological stress response to different riders. J. Vet. Behav. 2021;46:18–23.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jveb.2021.07.013google scholar: lookup
  20. Ferlazzo A, Fazio E, Cravana C, Medica P. Equine-assisted services: An overview of current scientific contributions on efficacy and outcomes on humans and horses. J. Vet. Behav. 2023;59:15–24.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jveb.2022.11.010google scholar: lookup
  21. Meints K, Brelsford VL, Dimolareva M, Maréchal L, Pennington K, Rowan E, Gee NR. Can dogs reduce stress levels in school children? effects of dog-assisted interventions on salivary cortisol in children with and without special educational needs using randomized controlled trials. PLoS ONE 2022;17:e0269333.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0269333pmc: PMC9200172pubmed: 35704561google scholar: lookup
  22. Wijker C, Kupper N, Leontjevas R, Spek A, Enders-Slegers M-J. The effects of Animal Assisted Therapy on autonomic and endocrine activity in adults with autism spectrum disorder: A randomized controlled trial. General. Hosp. Psychiatry 2021;72:36–44.
    doi: 10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2021.05.003pubmed: 34237553google scholar: lookup
  23. Nagasawa T, Kimura Y, Masuda K, Uchiyama H. Effects of Interactions with Cats in Domestic Environment on the Psychological and Physiological State of Their Owners: Associations among Cortisol, Oxytocin, Heart Rate Variability, and Emotions. Animals 2023;13:2116.
    doi: 10.3390/ani13132116pmc: PMC10340037pubmed: 37443915google scholar: lookup
  24. Pendry P, Vandagriff JL. Animal Visitation Program (AVP) Reduces Cortisol Levels of University Students: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Aera Open 2019;5:2332858419852592.
    doi: 10.1177/2332858419852592google scholar: lookup
  25. Costa MM, Benoit N, Dormoi J, Amalvict R, Gomez N, Tissot-Dupont H, Million M, Pradines B, Granjeaud S, Almeras L. Salivette, a relevant saliva sampling device for SARS-CoV-2 detection. J. Oral Microbiol. 2021;13:1920226.
    doi: 10.1080/20002297.2021.1920226pmc: PMC8098750pubmed: 33986939google scholar: lookup
  26. Zagoory-Sharon O, Levine A, Feldman R. Human sweat contains oxytocin. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2023;158:106407.
    doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2023.106407pubmed: 37797406google scholar: lookup
  27. Allen AP, Hutch W, Borre YE, Kennedy PJ, Temko A, Boylan G, Murphy E, Cryan JF, Dinan TG, Clarke G. Bifidobacterium longum 1714 as a translational psychobiotic: Modulation of stress, electrophysiology and neurocognition in healthy volunteers. Transl. Psychiatry 2016;6:e939.
    doi: 10.1038/tp.2016.191pmc: PMC5314114pubmed: 27801892google scholar: lookup
  28. Akiyama J, Sakagami T, Uchiyama H, Ohta M. The health benefits of visiting a zoo, park, and aquarium for older Japanese. Anthrozoös 2021;34:463–473.
    doi: 10.1080/08927936.2021.1898211google scholar: lookup
  29. Stetina BU, Krouzecky C, Emmett L, Klaps A, Ruck N, Kovacovsky Z, Bunina A, Aden J. Differences between female and male inmates in Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT) in Austria: Do we need treatment programs specific to the needs of females in AAT?. Animals 2020;10:244.
    doi: 10.3390/ani10020244pmc: PMC7070537pubmed: 32033069google scholar: lookup
  30. Beetz A, Uvnas-Moberg K, Julius H, Kotrschal K. Psychosocial and psychophysiological effects of human-animal interactions: The possible role of oxytocin. Front. Psychol. 2012;3:234.
    doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00234pmc: PMC3408111pubmed: 22866043google scholar: lookup
  31. Hama H, Yogo M, Matsuyama Y. Effects of stroking horses on both humans’ and horses’ heart rate responses 1. Jpn. Psychol. Res. 1996;38:66–73.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1468-5884.1996.tb00009.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  32. Curry BA, Donaldson B, Vercoe M, Filippo M, Zak PJ. Oxytocin responses after dog and cat interactions depend on pet ownership and may affect interpersonal trust. Hum.-Anim. Interact. Bull. 2015.
    doi: 10.1079/hai.2015.0008google scholar: lookup
  33. Odendaal JS. Animal-assisted therapy—Magic or medicine?. J. Psychosom. Res. 2000;49:275–280.
    doi: 10.1016/S0022-3999(00)00183-5pubmed: 11119784google scholar: lookup
  34. Payne E, DeAraugo J, Bennett P, McGreevy P. Exploring the existence and potential underpinnings of dog–human and horse–human attachment bonds. Behav. Process. 2016;125:114–121.
    doi: 10.1016/j.beproc.2015.10.004pubmed: 26470887google scholar: lookup
  35. Pan Z, Granger DA, Guérin NA, Shoffner A, Gabriels RL. Replication pilot trial of therapeutic horseback riding and cortisol collection with children on the autism spectrum. Front. Vet. Sci. 2019;5:312.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00312pmc: PMC6339889pubmed: 30693284google scholar: lookup
  36. Burton LE, Qeadan F, Burge MR. Efficacy of equine-assisted psychotherapy in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Integr. Med. 2019;17:14–19.
    doi: 10.1016/j.joim.2018.11.001pubmed: 30497951google scholar: lookup
  37. Barker SB, Wolen AR. The benefits of human–companion animal interaction: A review. J. Vet. Med. Educ. 2008;35:487–495.
    doi: 10.3138/jvme.35.4.487pubmed: 19228898google scholar: lookup
  38. Hoagwood K, Vincent A, Acri M, Morrissey M, Seibel L, Guo F, Flores C, Seag D, Pierce RP, Horwitz S. Reducing Anxiety and Stress among Youth in a CBT-Based Equine-Assisted Adaptive Riding Program. Animals 2022;12:2491.
    doi: 10.3390/ani12192491pmc: PMC9558534pubmed: 36230232google scholar: lookup
  39. Schultz PN, Remick-Barlow GA, Robbins L. Equine-assisted psychotherapy: A mental health promotion/intervention modality for children who have experienced intra-family violence. Health Soc. Care Comm. 2007;15:265–271.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2524.2006.00684.xpubmed: 17444990google scholar: lookup
  40. Kang O-D, Yun Y-M. Influence of horse and rider on stress during horse-riding lesson program. Asian-Australas. J. Anim. Sci. 2016;29:895.
    doi: 10.5713/ajas.15.1068pmc: PMC4852258pubmed: 27004819google scholar: lookup
  41. MacLean EL, Gesquiere LR, Gee NR, Levy K, Martin WL, Carter CS. Effects of affiliative human–animal interaction on dog salivary and plasma oxytocin and vasopressin. Front. Psychol. 2017;8:1606.
    doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01606pmc: PMC5611686pubmed: 28979224google scholar: lookup
  42. Gnanadesikan GE, King KM, Carranza E, Flyer AC, Ossello G, Smith PG, Steklis NG, Steklis HD, Carter CS, Connelly JJ. Effects of human-animal interaction on salivary and urinary oxytocin in children and dogs. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2024;169:107147.
    doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2024.107147pmc: PMC11381145pubmed: 39094516google scholar: lookup
  43. Handlin L, Hydbring-Sandberg E, Nilsson A, Ejdebäck M, Jansson A, Uvnäs-Moberg K. Short-term interaction between dogs and their owners: Effects on oxytocin, cortisol, insulin and heart rate—An exploratory study. Anthrozoös 2011;24:301–315.
    doi: 10.2752/175303711X13045914865385google scholar: lookup
  44. Payne E, Boot M, Starling M, Henshall C, McLean A, Bennett P, McGreevy P. Evidence of horsemanship and dogmanship and their application in veterinary contexts. Vet. J. 2015;204:247–254.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2015.04.004pubmed: 25959129google scholar: lookup
  45. Paccamonti DL, Pycock JF, Taverne MAM, Bevers M, Van Der Weijden GC, Gutjahr S, Schams D, Blouin D. PGFM response to exogenous oxytocin and determination of the half-life of oxytocin in nonpregnant mares. Equine Vet. J. 1999;31:285–288.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb03818.xpubmed: 10454085google scholar: lookup
  46. Fazio E, Medica P, Cravana C, Ferlazzo A. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis responses of horses to therapeutic riding program: Effects of different riders. Physiol. Behav. 2013;118:138–143.
    doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.05.009pubmed: 23684906google scholar: lookup
  47. Nuchprayoon N, Arya N, Ritruechai P. Stress cortisol and muscle stiffness in horses used for equine-assisted therapy. J. Appl. Anim. Sci. 2017;10:35–46.
  48. Ng ZY, Pierce BJ, Otto CM, Buechner-Maxwell VA, Siracusa C, Werre SR. The effect of dog–human interaction on cortisol and behavior in registered animal-assisted activity dogs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2014;159:69–81.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2014.07.009google scholar: lookup
  49. Merkies K, McKechnie MJ, Zakrajsek E. Behavioural and physiological responses of therapy horses to mentally traumatized humans. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2018;205:61–67.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2018.05.019google scholar: lookup
  50. Moyers SA, Hagger MS. Physical activity and cortisol regulation: A meta-analysis. Biol. Psychol. 2023;179:108548.
    doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2023.108548pubmed: 37001634google scholar: lookup
  51. Ferlazzo A, Cravana C, Fazio E, Medica P. The different hormonal system during exercise stress coping in horses. Vet. World. 2020;13:847.
    doi: 10.14202/vetworld.2020.847-859pmc: PMC7311877pubmed: 32636578google scholar: lookup
  52. Becker-Birck M, Schmidt A, Lasarzik J, Aurich J, Mostl E, Aurich C. Cortisol release and heart rate variability in sport horses participating in equestrian competitions. J. Vet. Behav. 2013;8:87–94.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jveb.2012.05.002google scholar: lookup
  53. Krumrych W, Gołda R, Gołyński M, Markiewicz H, Buzała M. Effect of physical exercise on cortisol concentration and neutrophil oxygen metabolism in peripheral blood of horses. Ann. Anim. Sci. 2018;18:53.
    doi: 10.1515/aoas-2017-0019google scholar: lookup
  54. Nagata S, Takeda F, Kurosawa M, Mima K, Hiraga A, Kai M, Taya K. Plasma adrenocorticotropin, cortisol and catecholamines response to various exercises. Equine Vet. J. 1999;31:570–574.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05286.xpubmed: 10659320google scholar: lookup
  55. Drude S, Geißler A, Olfe J, Starke A, Domanska G, Schuett C, Kiank-Nussbaum C. Side effects of control treatment can conceal experimental data when studying stress responses to injection and psychological stress in mice. Lab. Anim. 2011;40:119–128.
    doi: 10.1038/laban0411-119pubmed: 21427691google scholar: lookup
  56. Chandler K, Dixon R. Urinary cortisol: Creatinine ratios in healthy horses and horses with hyperadrenocorticism and non.adrenal disease. Vet. Rec. 2002;150:773–776.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.150.25.773pubmed: 12135071google scholar: lookup
  57. Peeters M, Sulon J, Beckers JF, Ledoux D, Vandenheede M. Comparison between blood serum and salivary cortisol concentrations in horses using an adrenocorticotropic hormone challenge. Equine Vet. J. 2011;43:487–493.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00294.xpubmed: 21496072google scholar: lookup
  58. Aurich J, Wulf M, Ille N, Erber R, von Lewinski M, Palme R, Aurich C. Effects of season, age, sex, and housing on salivary cortisol concentrations in horses. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 2015;52:11–16.
    doi: 10.1016/j.domaniend.2015.01.003pubmed: 25700267google scholar: lookup
  59. Costa RF P, Xu S, Brandao A, Hayashi M. Reconnection with Nature through Empathy: Rewiring People and Animals by Assessing Zoo Visitors’ Connection to Species and the Need for their Conservation. Front. Psychology. 2025;16:1517430.
    doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517430pmc: PMC11955963pubmed: 40166386google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,359 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.