FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Front Vet Sci / The Importance of Subchondral Bone in the Pathophysiology of...
Frontiers in veterinary science2018; 5; 178; doi: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00178

The Importance of Subchondral Bone in the Pathophysiology of Osteoarthritis.

Abstract: Subchondral bone plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of osteochondral disease across veterinary species. The subchondral bone is highly adaptable, with the ability to model and remodel in response to loading stresses experienced by the joint. Repetitive stress injuries within the joint can result in primary or secondary pathologic lesions within the subchondral bone, which have been recognized to contribute to the development and progression of osteoarthritis. Recent advances in diagnostic imaging, particularly volumetric imaging modalities have facilitated earlier identification of subchondral bone disease. Despite these advancements, limitations in our knowledge about subchondral bone makes treatment and prevention of these conditions challenging. The purpose of this report is to review our current understanding of subchondral bone and its relationship to osteoarthritis across veterinary species, with a specific focus in the research that has been performed in horses. It can be concluded that our current understanding of subchondral bone is advancing, and future experimental, clinical and pathologic studies will provide additional insight about subchondral bone and its relationship to joint disease.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2018-08-28 PubMed ID: 30211173PubMed Central: PMC6122109DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00178Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This research paper examines the significant role played by subchondral bone in the development and progression of osteoarthritis, a common joint disease, in different animal species. The study particularly focuses on horses and the advances in understanding its condition through improved diagnostic imaging and existing challenges to pave the way for future studies.

Subchondral Bone and Its Role in Osteoarthritis

  • The paper recognizes the subchondral bone as critical in the pathogenesis of osteochondral diseases among various animal species, including horses. This bone is highly adaptable and able to adjust its structure in response to the stresses placed upon the joint.
  • Continuous stress injuries within the joint can lead to primary or secondary pathologic lesions within the subchondral bone, contributing significantly to the onset and progression of osteoarthritis, which is a degenerative joint disease.

Diagnostic Imaging Advances and Challenges

  • Advancements in diagnostic imaging, especially the use of volumetric imaging modalities, have made it easier to detect subchondral bone diseases earlier. This has greatly improved the chances of successful treatment and disease management.
  • Despite these advances, the paper highlights some limitations in our understanding of subchondral bone. These challenges make it harder to devise effective treatment and preventive measures against these conditions.

Focus on Horses and Future Studies

  • The report has a specific focus on research that has been conducted on horses. This focus is aimed at enhancing our comprehension of the subchondral bone in these animals, and about how this knowledge can be applied to improve the prevention and treatment of osteoarthritis in them.
  • The paper concludes by stating that our understanding of the subchondral bone is improving. However, it proposes that more experimental, clinical and pathologic studies will need to be conducted to expand upon this understanding and to better understand the relationship between the subchondral bone and joint diseases.

Cite This Article

APA
Stewart HL, Kawcak CE. (2018). The Importance of Subchondral Bone in the Pathophysiology of Osteoarthritis. Front Vet Sci, 5, 178. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2018.00178

Publication

Frontiers in veterinary science
ISSN: 2297-1769
NlmUniqueID: 101666658
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 5
Pages: 178

Researcher Affiliations

Stewart, Holly L
  • Equine Orthopaedic Research Center, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States.
Kawcak, Christopher E
  • Equine Orthopaedic Research Center, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States.

References

This article includes 51 references
  1. Gomoll AH, Farr J. The osteochondral unit. Cartilage Restoration New York, NY: Springer New York; (2014). p. 9–15.
  2. Smith MRW, Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW. Science in brief: report on the Havemeyer Foundation workshop on subchondral bone problems in the equine athlete. Equine Vet J (2016) 48:6–8.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12518pubmed: 26663405google scholar: lookup
  3. McIlwraith CW, Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE, van Weeren R. Joint Disease in the Horse. 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Inc; (2016).
  4. Clark JM, Huber JD. The structure of the human subchondral plate. J Bone Joint Surg Br (1990) 72:866–73.
    doi: 10.1302/0301-620X.72B5.2211774pubmed: 2211774google scholar: lookup
  5. Radin EL, Paul IL. Response of joints to impact loading. I. in vitro wear. Arthritis Rheum (1971) 14:356–62.
    doi: 10.1002/art.1780140306pubmed: 5562019google scholar: lookup
  6. Simon SR, Radin EL, Paul IL, Rose RM. The response of joints to impact loading — II In vivo behavior of subchondral bone. J Biomech (1972) 5:267–72.
    doi: 10.1016/0021-9290(72)90042-5pubmed: 4269623google scholar: lookup
  7. Radin EL, Parker HG, Pugh JW, Steinberg RS, Paul IL, Rose RM. Response of joints to impact loading — III: Relationship between trabecular microfractures and cartilage degeneration. J Biomech (1973) 6:51–7.
    doi: 10.1016/0021-9290(73)90037-7pubmed: 4693868google scholar: lookup
  8. Brama PA, Holopainen J, van Weeren PR, Firth EC, Helminen HJ, Hyttinen MM. Influence of exercise and joint topography on depth-related spatial distribution of proteoglycan and collagen content in immature equine articular cartilage. Equine Vet J (2009) 41:557–63.
    doi: 10.2746/042516409X424162pubmed: 19803051google scholar: lookup
  9. Mankin H, Radin E. Structure and function of joints. Arthritis and Allied Conditions: A Textbook of Rheumatology In: McCarthy D. editors. 12th Ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger; (1993). p. 189.
  10. Auer JA, Stick JA. Equine Surgery. 4th Ed. St. Louis, MO: (2012).
  11. Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Norrdin RW, Park RD, James SP. The role of subchondral bone in joint disease: a review. Equine Vet J (2001) 33:120–6.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2001.tb00589.xpubmed: 11266060google scholar: lookup
  12. Radin EL, Rose RM. Role of subchondral bone in the initiation and progression of cartilage damage. Clin Orthop Relat Res (1986) 34–40.
    doi: 10.1097/00003086-198612000-00005pubmed: 3780104google scholar: lookup
  13. Merritt JS, Davies HMS, Burvill C, Pandy MG. Calculation of joint reaction forces in the equine distal forelimb during walking and trotting. Proc Front Converg Biosci Inf Technol (2007) 2008:587–90.
    doi: 10.1109/FBIT.2007.152google scholar: lookup
  14. Frost HM. Skeletal structural adaptations to mechanical usage (SATMU): 1. Redefining Wolff's Law: the bone modeling problem. Anat Rec (1990) 226:403–13.
    pubmed: 2184695
  15. Sims NA, Martin TJ. Coupling the activities of bone formation and resorption: a multitude of signals within the basic multicellular unit. Bonekey Rep (2014) 3:481.
    doi: 10.1038/bonekey.2013.215pmc: PMC3899560pubmed: 24466412google scholar: lookup
  16. Holmes JM, Mirams M, Mackie EJ, Whitton RC. Thoroughbred horses in race training have lower levels of subchondral bone remodelling in highly loaded regions of the distal metacarpus compared to horses resting from training. Vet J (2014) 202:443–7.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.09.010pubmed: 25296852google scholar: lookup
  17. McIlwraith CW, Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE, Fuller CJ, Hurtig M, Cruz A. The OARSI histopathology initiative – recommendations for histological assessments of osteoarthritis in the horse. Osteoarthr Cartil (2010) 18(Suppl. 3):S93–105.
    doi: 10.1016/j.joca.2010.05.031pubmed: 20864027google scholar: lookup
  18. Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Norrdin RW, Park RD, Steyn PS. Clinical effects of exercise on subchondral bone of carpal and metacarpophalangeal joints in horses. Am J Vet Res (2000) 61:1252–8.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2000.61.1252pubmed: 11039557google scholar: lookup
  19. Norrdin RW, Kawcak CE, Capwell BA, McIlwraith CW. Calcified cartilage morphometry and its relation to subchondral bone remodeling in equine arthrosis. Bone (1999) 24:109–14.
    doi: 10.1016/S8756-3282(98)00157-4pubmed: 9951778google scholar: lookup
  20. Norrdin RW, Kawcak CE, Capwell BA, McIlwraith CW. Subchondral bone failure in an equine model of overload arthrosis. Bone (1998) 22:133–9.
    doi: 10.1016/S8756-3282(97)00253-6pubmed: 9477236google scholar: lookup
  21. Lajeunesse D, Massicotte F, Pelletier JP, Martel-Pelletier J. Subchondral bone sclerosis in osteoarthritis: not just an innocent bystander. Mod Rheumatol (2003) 13:7–14.
    doi: 10.3109/s101650300001pubmed: 24387110google scholar: lookup
  22. Radin E. Subchondral bone changes and cartilage damage. Equine Vet J (1999) 31:94–5.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb03799.xpubmed: 10213419google scholar: lookup
  23. Goldring MB, Goldring SR. Osteoarthritis. J Cell Physiol (2007) 213:626–34.
    doi: 10.1002/jcp.21258pubmed: 17786965google scholar: lookup
  24. Mcilwraith CW. From arthroscopy to gene therapy–30 years of looking in joints. AAEP Proceedings (2005). p. 65–113.
  25. Berenbaum F. Osteoarthritis as an inflammatory disease (osteoarthritis is not osteoarthrosis!). Osteoarthr Cartil (2013) 21:16–21.
    doi: 10.1016/j.joca.2012.11.012pubmed: 23194896google scholar: lookup
  26. Kapoor M, Martel-Pelletier J, Lajeunesse D, Pelletier JP, Fahmi H. Role of proinflammatory cytokines in the pathophysiology of osteoarthritis. Nat Rev Rheumatol (2011) 7:33–42.
    doi: 10.1038/nrrheum.2010.196pubmed: 21119608google scholar: lookup
  27. Boyde A. The real response of bone to exercise. J Anat (2003) 203:173–89.
    doi: 10.1046/j.1469-7580.2003.00213.xpmc: PMC1571152pubmed: 12924818google scholar: lookup
  28. Pool R. Pathological manifestations of joint disease in the athletic horse. Joint Disease in the Horse In: Mcilwraith CW, Trotter GW. editors. 1st Ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier; (1996). p. 98–9.
  29. Peloso JG, Vogler JB, Cohen ND, Marquis P, Hilt L. Association of catastrophic biaxial fracture of the proximal sesamoid bones with bony changes of the metacarpophalangeal joint identified by standing magnetic resonance imaging in cadaveric forelimbs of Thoroughbred racehorses. J Am Vet Med Assoc (2015) 246:661–73.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.246.6.661pubmed: 25719849google scholar: lookup
  30. Riggs C. Aetiopathogenesis of parasagittal fractures of the distal condyles of the third metacarpal and third metatarsal bones - review of the literature. Equine Vet J (1999) 31:116–20.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb03803.xpubmed: 10213423google scholar: lookup
  31. Riggs C, Whitehouse GH, Boyde A. Structural variation of the distal condyles of the third metacarpal and third metatarsal bones in the horse. Equine Vet J (1999) 31:130–9.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb03806.xpubmed: 10213425google scholar: lookup
  32. Martinelli M. Subchondral bone and injury. Equine Vet Educ (2009) 21:253–6.
    doi: 10.2746/095777309X431311google scholar: lookup
  33. Cullimore A, Finnie J, Marmion W, Booth TM. Severe lameness associated with an impact fracture of the proximal phalanx in a filly. Equine Vet Educ (2009) 21:247–51.
    doi: 10.2746/095777309X409901google scholar: lookup
  34. Pool RR, Meagher DM. Pathologic Findings and Pathogenesis of Racetrack Injuries. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract (1990) 6:1–30.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30555-2pubmed: 2187565google scholar: lookup
  35. Martig S, Chen W, Lee PV, Whitton RC. Bone fatigue and its implications for injuries in racehorses. Equine Vet J (2014) 46:408–15.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12241pubmed: 24528139google scholar: lookup
  36. Drum MG, Les CM, Park RD, McIlwraith CW, Kawcak CE. Comparison of mean bone densities of three preparations of the distal portion of the equine third metacarpal bone measured by use of quantitative computed tomography. Am J Vet Res (2008) 69:891–3.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.69.7.891pubmed: 18593241google scholar: lookup
  37. Turley SM, Thambyah A, Riggs CM, Firth EC, Broom ND. Microstructural changes in cartilage and bone related to repetitive overloading in an equine athlete model. J Anat (2014) 224:647–58.
    doi: 10.1111/joa.12177pmc: PMC4025892pubmed: 24689513google scholar: lookup
  38. Tull TM, Bramlage LR. Racing prognosis after cumulative stress-induced injury of the distal portion of the third metacarpal and third metatarsal bones in Thoroughbred racehorses: 55 cases (2000–2009). J Am Vet Med Assoc (2011) 238:1316–22.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.238.10.1316pubmed: 21568778google scholar: lookup
  39. Riggs CM. Osteochondral injury and joint disease in the athletic horse. Equine Vet Educ (2010) 18:100–12.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2006.tb00426.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  40. Eriksen EF. Treatment of bone marrow lesions (bone marrow edema). Bonekey Rep (2015) 4:755.
    doi: 10.1038/bonekey.2015.124pmc: PMC4662576pubmed: 26644910google scholar: lookup
  41. Bonadio MB, Filho AGO, Helito CP, Stump XM, Demange MK. Bone Marrow Lesion: Image, Clinical Presentation, and Treatment. Magn Reson Insights (2017) 10:1178623X17703382.
    doi: 10.1177/1178623x17703382pmc: PMC5428162pubmed: 28579795google scholar: lookup
  42. Zanetti M, Bruder E, Romero J, Hodler J. Bone marrow edema pattern in osteoarthritic knees: correlation between MR imaging and histologic findings. Radiology (2000) 215:835–40.
    doi: 10.1148/radiology.215.3.r00jn05835pubmed: 10831707google scholar: lookup
  43. Felson DT, McLaughlin S, Goggins J, LaValley MP, Gale ME, Totterman S. Bone marrow edema and its relation to progression of knee osteoarthritis. Ann Intern Med (2003) 139:330.
    doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-139-5_Part_1-200309020-00008pubmed: 12965941google scholar: lookup
  44. Xu L, Hayashi D, Roemer FW, Felson DT, Guermazi A. Magnetic resonance imaging of subchondral bone marrow lesions in association with osteoarthritis. Semin Arthritis Rheum (2012) 42:105–18.
    doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2012.03.009pmc: PMC3653632pubmed: 22542276google scholar: lookup
  45. Hunter DJ, Zhang Y, Niu J, Goggins J, Amin S, LaValley MP. Increase in bone marrow lesions associated with cartilage loss: A longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study of knee osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum (2006) 54:1529–35.
    doi: 10.1002/art.21789pubmed: 16646037google scholar: lookup
  46. Haavardsholm EA, Bøyesen P, Østergaard M, Schildvold A, Kvien TK. Magnetic resonance imaging findings in 84 patients with early rheumatoid arthritis: bone marrow oedema predicts erosive progression. Ann Rheum Dis (2008) 67:794–800.
    doi: 10.1136/ard.2007.071977pubmed: 17981915google scholar: lookup
  47. Tucker RL, Sande RD. Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Equine Musculoskeletal Conditions. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract (2001) 17:145–57.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30080-9pubmed: 11488041google scholar: lookup
  48. Spriet M, Espinosa P, Kyme AZ, Stepanov P, Zavarzin V, Schaeffer S. Positron emission tomography of the equine distal limb: exploratory study. Vet Radiol Ultrasound (2016) 57:630–8.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12430pubmed: 27699910google scholar: lookup
  49. King MR, Haussler KK, Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Reiser RF. Mechanisms of aquatic therapy and its potential use in managing equine osteoarthritis. Equine Vet Educ (2013) 25:204–9.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2012.00389.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  50. Bonabello A, Galmozzi M, Bruzzese T, Zara GP. Analgesic effect of bisphosphonates in mice. Pain (2001) 91:269–75.
    doi: 10.1016/S0304-3959(00)00447-4pubmed: 11275384google scholar: lookup
  51. Maksymowych WP. Bisphosphonates, anti-inflammatory properties. Curr Med Chem Anti- Inflamm Anti-Allergy Agents (2002) 1:15–28.
    doi: 10.2174/1568014024606539google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 63 times.
  1. Patel M, Betanzos G, Troka M, Modi J, Nageeb G, Kaye AD, Abd-Elsayed A. Nutritional Interventions in Osteoarthritis: Mechanisms, Clinical Evidence, and Translational Opportunities. Nutrients 2026 Jan 13;18(2).
    doi: 10.3390/nu18020244pubmed: 41599857google scholar: lookup
  2. Lv Z, Chai Y, Zhang X, Lan W, Wei J, Li L, Chen W, Lei Y, Liu J, Li ZA, Huang D. Next-Generation Joint-on-a-Chip: Toward Precision Mechanical Control in Multi-Tissue Systems. Nanomicro Lett 2026 Jan 5;18(1):187.
    doi: 10.1007/s40820-025-02031-5pubmed: 41486394google scholar: lookup
  3. Marković L, Vićić I, Lazarević Macanović M, Francuski Andrić J, Kovačević Filipović M, Radaković M. Degenerative Changes in MCP/MTP Joints of Working Horses Without Lameness: Integrating CT-Based Assessment and Synovial Fluid Biomarkers. Animals (Basel) 2025 Nov 24;15(23).
    doi: 10.3390/ani15233392pubmed: 41375451google scholar: lookup
  4. Jeong M, Woo HM, Yun JH, Kim J. Targeting tie-2 receptor with rebastinib (DCC-2036) for angiogenesis Inhibition in early-stage arthritis : enhanced efficacy through liposomal sustained release. Inflammopharmacology 2026 Jan;34(1):419-429.
    doi: 10.1007/s10787-025-02081-6pubmed: 41329397google scholar: lookup
  5. Shi Z, Xue J, Wei T, Wang W, Zhang J, Ji C. Integrating bioinformatics, molecular dynamics simulation and experimental verification to screen diagnostic biomarkers for polyamine metabolism-related osteoarthritis and predict potential drugs. J Orthop Surg Res 2025 Dec 1;21(1):12.
    doi: 10.1186/s13018-025-06544-ypubmed: 41327360google scholar: lookup
  6. Steiger JI, Richter H, Donati B, Ohlerth S. Diagnostic Performance of Radiography for the Evaluation of Osteoarthritis in the Equine Distal Tarsus: Comparison with Computed Tomography. Animals (Basel) 2025 Aug 27;15(17).
    doi: 10.3390/ani15172522pubmed: 40941317google scholar: lookup
  7. Denwood H, Hauer TM, Berube M, Kelley MG, Cook A, Lin H, Cong T. Detriment of subchondral plate violation in antegrade osteochondral procedures-lessons and future direction. Ann Jt 2025;10:26.
    doi: 10.21037/aoj-24-69pubmed: 40791906google scholar: lookup
  8. Khan MAM, Siddiqui TW, Siddiqui RW, Nishat SMH, Alzaabi AA, Alzaabi FM, Al Tarawneh DJ, Al Tarawneh YJ, Khan A, Siddiqui SW. Shared Mechanisms Between Osteoarthritis and Cardiovascular Disease: A Clinical and Pathophysiological Review. Cureus 2025 Jun;17(6):e86284.
    doi: 10.7759/cureus.86284pubmed: 40688840google scholar: lookup
  9. Smith KWY, Fung SL, Wu HF, Chiesa I, Vozzi G, De Maria C, Gottardi R. Developing an in vitro osteochondral micro-physiological system for modeling cartilage-bone crosstalk in arthritis. Front Immunol 2025;16:1495613.
    doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2025.1495613pubmed: 40491903google scholar: lookup
  10. Nagy A, Dyson SJ. Combined standing low-field magnetic resonance imaging and fan-beam computed tomographic diagnosis of fetlock region pain in 27 sports horses. Equine Vet J 2025 Sep;57(5):1313-1327.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.14504pubmed: 40123444google scholar: lookup
  11. Malekipour F, Whitton RC, Lee PV. Advancements in Subchondral Bone Biomechanics: Insights from Computed Tomography and Micro-Computed Tomography Imaging in Equine Models. Curr Osteoporos Rep 2024 Dec;22(6):544-552.
    doi: 10.1007/s11914-024-00886-ypubmed: 39276168google scholar: lookup
  12. Puchalska M, Witkowska-Piłaszewicz O. Gene doping in horse racing and equine sports: Current landscape and future perspectives. Equine Vet J 2025 Mar;57(2):312-324.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.14418pubmed: 39267222google scholar: lookup
  13. Jo S, Sebro RA, Zhang L, Wang Z, Chang L, Hochberg MC, Mitchell BD. A Preliminary Study of Quantitative MRI Cartilage Loss Fraction and Its Association With Future Arthroplasty Using the Osteoarthritis Initiative Database. Cureus 2024 Jul;16(7):e64279.
    doi: 10.7759/cureus.64279pubmed: 39130899google scholar: lookup
  14. Faeed M, Ghiasvand M, Fareghzadeh B, Taghiyar L. Osteochondral organoids: current advances, applications, and upcoming challenges. Stem Cell Res Ther 2024 Jun 21;15(1):183.
    doi: 10.1186/s13287-024-03790-5pubmed: 38902814google scholar: lookup
  15. de Morais SV, Calado GP, Carvalho RC, Garcia JBS, de Queiroz TM, Cantanhede Filho AJ, Lopes AJO, Cartágenes MDSS, Domingues GRS. Impact of Cuminaldehyde and Indomethacin Co-Administration on Inflammatory Responses in MIA-Induced Osteoarthritis in Rats. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2024 May 14;17(5).
    doi: 10.3390/ph17050630pubmed: 38794200google scholar: lookup
  16. Nagy A, Dyson S. Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Computed Tomographic and Radiographic Findings in the Metacarpophalangeal Joints of 31 Warmblood Showjumpers in Full Work and Competing Regularly. Animals (Basel) 2024 May 9;14(10).
    doi: 10.3390/ani14101417pubmed: 38791635google scholar: lookup
  17. Cao H, Li W, Zhang H, Hong L, Feng X, Gao X, Li H, Lv N, Liu M. Bio-nanoparticles loaded with synovial-derived exosomes ameliorate osteoarthritis progression by modifying the oxidative microenvironment. J Nanobiotechnology 2024 May 20;22(1):271.
    doi: 10.1186/s12951-024-02538-wpubmed: 38769545google scholar: lookup
  18. Ma L, Gao J. Suppression of lncRNA-MALAT1 activity ameliorates femoral head necrosis by modulating mTOR signaling. Arch Med Sci 2024;20(2):612-617.
    doi: 10.5114/aoms.2020.92829pubmed: 38757012google scholar: lookup
  19. Steiner J, Richter H, Kaufmann R, Ohlerth S. Characterization of Normal Bone in the Equine Distal Limb with Effective Atomic Number and Electron Density Determined with Single-Source Dual Energy and Detector-Based Spectral Computed Tomography. Animals (Basel) 2024 Mar 30;14(7).
    doi: 10.3390/ani14071064pubmed: 38612304google scholar: lookup
  20. Ganhewa AD, Seth I, Wu R, Chae MP, Tobin V, Smith JA, Hunter-Smith DJ, Rozen WM. Exploring Age-Related Variations in Carpal Bone Volume: Implications for Clinical Practice and Anatomical Understanding. Hand (N Y) 2025 Sep;20(6):951-957.
    doi: 10.1177/15589447241242830pubmed: 38606949google scholar: lookup
  21. Connard SS, Gaesser AM, Clarke EJ, Linardi RL, Even KM, Engiles JB, Koch DW, Peffers MJ, Ortved KF. Plasma and synovial fluid extracellular vesicles display altered microRNA profiles in horses with naturally occurring post-traumatic osteoarthritis: an exploratory study. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2024 Jun 1;262(S1):S83-S96.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.24.02.0102pubmed: 38593834google scholar: lookup
  22. Tjandra KC, Novriansyah R, Sudiasa INS, Ar A, Rahmawati NAD, Dilogo IH. Modified Mesenchymal stem cell, platelet-rich plasma, and hyaluronic acid intervention in early stage osteoarthritis: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression of arthroscopic-guided intra-articular approaches. PLoS One 2024;19(3):e0295876.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0295876pubmed: 38457479google scholar: lookup
  23. Liu G, Wei X, Zhai Y, Zhang J, Li J, Zhao Z, Guan T, Zhao D. 3D printed osteochondral scaffolds: design strategies, present applications and future perspectives. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2024;12:1339916.
    doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2024.1339916pubmed: 38425994google scholar: lookup
  24. Dalos D, Marshall PR, Lissy M, Maas KJ, Henes FO, Kaul MG, Kleinertz H, Frings J, Krause M, Frosch KH, Welsch GH. Influence of leg axis alignment on MRI T2* mapping of the knee in young professional soccer players. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2024 Feb 15;25(1):144.
    doi: 10.1186/s12891-024-07233-3pubmed: 38360606google scholar: lookup
  25. Vlashi R, Zhang X, Li H, Chen G. Potential therapeutic strategies for osteoarthritis via CRISPR/Cas9 mediated gene editing. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2024 Apr;25(2):339-367.
    doi: 10.1007/s11154-023-09860-ypubmed: 38055160google scholar: lookup
  26. Yu X, Deng Z, Li H, Ma Y, Zheng Q. In situ fabrication of an anisotropic double-layer hydrogel as a bio-scaffold for repairing articular cartilage and subchondral bone injuries. RSC Adv 2023 Nov 30;13(50):34958-34971.
    doi: 10.1039/d3ra06222hpubmed: 38046634google scholar: lookup
  27. Larder CE, Iskandar MM, Kubow S. Collagen Hydrolysates: A Source of Bioactive Peptides Derived from Food Sources for the Treatment of Osteoarthritis. Medicines (Basel) 2023 Sep 1;10(9).
    doi: 10.3390/medicines10090050pubmed: 37755240google scholar: lookup
  28. Zappia J, Tong Q, Van der Cruyssen R, Cornelis FMF, Lambert C, Pinto Coelho T, Grisart J, Kague E, Lories RJ, Muller M, Elewaut D, Hammond CL, Sanchez C, Henrotin Y. Osteomodulin downregulation is associated with osteoarthritis development. Bone Res 2023 Sep 20;11(1):49.
    doi: 10.1038/s41413-023-00286-5pubmed: 37730805google scholar: lookup
  29. Achmad A, Suharjono, Soeroso J, Suprapti B, Siswandono, Pristianty L, Rahmadi M, Nugraha J, Nugroho CW, Surya Y, Isma SPP, Rahadiansyah E, Huwae TECJ, Suryana BPP. The sodium does not affect joint pain and functional activity of knee osteoarthritis patients. J Public Health Afr 2023 Mar 30;14(Suppl 1):2494.
    doi: 10.4081/jphia.2023.2494pubmed: 37492557google scholar: lookup
  30. Xilin C, Yan G, Juan LU, Luxue Q, Tingyao HU, Xin Z, Xinyue W, Anran Z, Yuxin Z, Honggang Z, Changqing G. Acupotomy ameliorates subchondral bone absorption and mechanical properties in rabbits with knee osteoarthritis by regulating bone morphogenetic protein 2-Smad1 pathway. J Tradit Chin Med 2023 Aug;43(4):734-743.
    doi: 10.19852/j.cnki.jtcm.20230404.001pubmed: 37454258google scholar: lookup
  31. Morais SV, Mendonça PG, Vasconcelos CC, Lopes PLA, Garcia JBS, Calzerra NTM, Queiroz TM, Lima STJRM, Silva GEB, Lopes AJO, Cartágenes MDSS, Domingues GRS. Cuminaldehyde Effects in a MIA-Induced Experimental Model Osteoarthritis in Rat Knees. Metabolites 2023 Mar 8;13(3).
    doi: 10.3390/metabo13030397pubmed: 36984837google scholar: lookup
  32. Dorraki M, Muratovic D, Fouladzadeh A, Verjans JW, Allison A, Findlay DM, Abbott D. Hip osteoarthritis: A novel network analysis of subchondral trabecular bone structures. PNAS Nexus 2022 Nov;1(5):pgac258.
    doi: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac258pubmed: 36712355google scholar: lookup
  33. Shen P, Löhning M. Insights into osteoarthritis development from single-cell RNA sequencing of subchondral bone. RMD Open 2022 Dec;8(2).
    doi: 10.1136/rmdopen-2022-002617pubmed: 36598005google scholar: lookup
  34. Cho WJ, Ahn J, Lee M, Choi H, Park S, Cha KY, Lee S, Arai Y, Lee SH. Combinatorial Effect of Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Extracellular Vesicles in a Hydrogel on Cartilage Regeneration. Tissue Eng Regen Med 2023 Feb;20(1):143-154.
    doi: 10.1007/s13770-022-00509-6pubmed: 36482140google scholar: lookup
  35. Riewruja K, Makarczyk M, Alexander PG, Gao Q, Goodman SB, Bunnell BA, Gold MS, Lin H. Experimental models to study osteoarthritis pain and develop therapeutics. Osteoarthr Cartil Open 2022 Dec;4(4):100306.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ocarto.2022.100306pubmed: 36474784google scholar: lookup
  36. Alle Q, Le Borgne E, Bensadoun P, Lemey C, Béchir N, Gabanou M, Estermann F, Bertrand-Gaday C, Pessemesse L, Toupet K, Desprat R, Vialaret J, Hirtz C, Noël D, Jorgensen C, Casas F, Milhavet O, Lemaitre JM. A single short reprogramming early in life initiates and propagates an epigenetically related mechanism improving fitness and promoting an increased healthy lifespan. Aging Cell 2022 Nov;21(11):e13714.
    doi: 10.1111/acel.13714pubmed: 36251933google scholar: lookup
  37. Liu L, Luo P, Yang M, Wang J, Hou W, Xu P. The role of oxidative stress in the development of knee osteoarthritis: A comprehensive research review. Front Mol Biosci 2022;9:1001212.
    doi: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.1001212pubmed: 36203877google scholar: lookup
  38. Radakovich LB, Burton LH, Culver LA, Afzali MF, Marolf AJ, Olver CS, Santangelo KS. Systemic iron reduction via an iron deficient diet decreases the severity of knee cartilage lesions in the Dunkin-Hartley guinea pig model of osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2022 Nov;30(11):1482-1494.
    doi: 10.1016/j.joca.2022.08.007pubmed: 36030059google scholar: lookup
  39. Ding D, Wang L, Yan J, Zhou Y, Feng G, Ma L, Yang Y, Pei X, Jin Q. RETRACTED: Zoledronic acid generates a spatiotemporal effect to attenuate osteoarthritis by inhibiting potential Wnt5a-associated abnormal subchondral bone resorption. PLoS One 2022;17(7):e0271485.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0271485pubmed: 35900969google scholar: lookup
  40. Yoshioka NK, Young GM, Khajuria DK, Karuppagounder V, Pinamont WJ, Fanburg-Smith JC, Abraham T, Elbarbary RA, Kamal F. Structural changes in the collagen network of joint tissues in late stages of murine OA. Sci Rep 2022 Jun 1;12(1):9159.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-13062-ypubmed: 35650306google scholar: lookup
  41. Nguyen TT, Hu CC, Sakthivel R, Nabilla SC, Huang YW, Yu J, Cheng NC, Kuo YJ, Chung RJ. Preparation of gamma poly-glutamic acid/hydroxyapatite/collagen composite as the 3D-printing scaffold for bone tissue engineering. Biomater Res 2022 May 31;26(1):21.
    doi: 10.1186/s40824-022-00265-7pubmed: 35642070google scholar: lookup
  42. Jhan SW, Wang CJ, Wu KT, Siu KK, Ko JY, Huang WC, Chou WY, Cheng JH. Comparison of Extracorporeal Shockwave Therapy with Non-Steroid Anti-Inflammatory Drugs and Intra-Articular Hyaluronic Acid Injection for Early Osteoarthritis of the Knees. Biomedicines 2022 Jan 18;10(2).
    doi: 10.3390/biomedicines10020202pubmed: 35203417google scholar: lookup
  43. Choe R, Devoy E, Kuzemchak B, Sherry M, Jabari E, Packer JD, Fisher JP. Computational investigation of interface printing patterns within 3D printed multilayered scaffolds for osteochondral tissue engineering. Biofabrication 2022 Feb 23;14(2).
    doi: 10.1088/1758-5090/ac5220pubmed: 35120345google scholar: lookup
  44. Doyle SE, Snow F, Duchi S, O'Connell CD, Onofrillo C, Di Bella C, Pirogova E. 3D Printed Multiphasic Scaffolds for Osteochondral Repair: Challenges and Opportunities. Int J Mol Sci 2021 Nov 17;22(22).
    doi: 10.3390/ijms222212420pubmed: 34830302google scholar: lookup
  45. Shen K, Liu X, Qin H, Chai Y, Wang L, Yu B. HA-g-CS Implant and Moderate-intensity Exercise Stimulate Subchondral Bone Remodeling and Promote Repair of Osteochondral Defects in Mice. Int J Med Sci 2021;18(16):3808-3820.
    doi: 10.7150/ijms.63401pubmed: 34790057google scholar: lookup
  46. Kikuchi N, Yoshioka T, Arai N, Sugaya H, Hyodo K, Taniguchi Y, Okuno K, Kanamori A, Yamazaki M. A Retrospective Analysis of Clinical Outcome and Predictive Factors for Responders with Knee Osteoarthritis to a Single Injection of Leukocyte-Poor Platelet-Rich Plasma. J Clin Med 2021 Oct 31;10(21).
    doi: 10.3390/jcm10215121pubmed: 34768641google scholar: lookup
  47. Sanjurjo-Rodríguez C, Crossland RE, Reis M, Pandit H, Wang XN, Jones E. Characterization and miRNA Profiling of Extracellular Vesicles from Human Osteoarthritic Subchondral Bone Multipotential Stromal Cells (MSCs). Stem Cells Int 2021;2021:7232773.
    doi: 10.1155/2021/7232773pubmed: 34667479google scholar: lookup
  48. Jia D, Zhang R, He Y, Cai G, Zheng J, Yang Y, Li Y. Comparative effectiveness of two methods for inducing osteoarthritis in a novel animal model, the Diannan small-ear pig. J Orthop Surg Res 2021 Oct 14;16(1):594.
    doi: 10.1186/s13018-021-02734-6pubmed: 34649596google scholar: lookup
  49. McKay RM, Vapniarsky N, Hatcher D, Carr N, Chen S, Verstraete FJM, Cissell DD, Arzi B. The Diagnostic Yield of Cone-Beam Computed Tomography for Degenerative Changes of the Temporomandibular Joint in Dogs. Front Vet Sci 2021;8:720641.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.720641pubmed: 34422949google scholar: lookup
  50. Choe R, Devoy E, Jabari E, Packer JD, Fisher JP. Biomechanical Aspects of Osteochondral Regeneration: Implications and Strategies for Three-Dimensional Bioprinting. Tissue Eng Part B Rev 2022 Aug;28(4):766-788.
    doi: 10.1089/ten.TEB.2021.0101pubmed: 34409874google scholar: lookup
  51. Rikken QGH, Dahmen J, Stufkens SAS, Kerkhoffs GMMJ. Satisfactory long-term clinical outcomes after bone marrow stimulation of osteochondral lesions of the talus. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 2021 Nov;29(11):3525-3533.
    doi: 10.1007/s00167-021-06630-8pubmed: 34185110google scholar: lookup
  52. Fan X, Wu X, Crawford R, Xiao Y, Prasadam I. Macro, Micro, and Molecular. Changes of the Osteochondral Interface in Osteoarthritis Development. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021;9:659654.
    doi: 10.3389/fcell.2021.659654pubmed: 34041240google scholar: lookup
  53. Taheri S, Yoshida T, Böker KO, Foerster RH, Jochim L, Flux AL, Grosskopf B, Lehmann W, Schilling AF. Investigating the Microchannel Architectures Inside the Subchondral Bone in Relation to Estimated Hip Reaction Forces on the Human Femoral Head. Calcif Tissue Int 2021 Nov;109(5):510-524.
    doi: 10.1007/s00223-021-00864-xpubmed: 34023913google scholar: lookup
  54. Jing X, Lin J, Du T, Jiang Z, Li T, Wang G, Liu X, Cui X, Sun K. Iron Overload Is Associated With Accelerated Progression of Osteoarthritis: The Role of DMT1 Mediated Iron Homeostasis. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020;8:594509.
    doi: 10.3389/fcell.2020.594509pubmed: 33469535google scholar: lookup
  55. Castanheira C, Balaskas P, Falls C, Ashraf-Kharaz Y, Clegg P, Burke K, Fang Y, Dyer P, Welting TJM, Peffers MJ. Equine synovial fluid small non-coding RNA signatures in early osteoarthritis. BMC Vet Res 2021 Jan 9;17(1):26.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-020-02707-7pubmed: 33422071google scholar: lookup
  56. Pragasam SSJ, Venkatesan V. Metabolic Syndrome Predisposes to Osteoarthritis: Lessons from Model System. Cartilage 2021 Dec;13(1_suppl):1598S-1609S.
    doi: 10.1177/1947603520980161pubmed: 33327733google scholar: lookup
  57. Jacob G, Shimomura K, Nakamura N. Osteochondral Injury, Management and Tissue Engineering Approaches. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020;8:580868.
    doi: 10.3389/fcell.2020.580868pubmed: 33251212google scholar: lookup
  58. Carnevale M, Jones J, Li G, Sharp J, Olson K, Bridges W. Computed Tomographic Evaluation of the Sacroiliac Joints of Young Working Labrador Retrievers of Various Work Status Groups: Detected Lesions Vary Among the Different Groups and Finite Element Analyses of the Static Pelvis Yields Repeatable Measures of Sacroiliac Ligament Joint Strain. Front Vet Sci 2020;7:528.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00528pubmed: 32923474google scholar: lookup
  59. Gao S, Liu L, Zhu S, Wang D, Wu Q, Ning G, Feng S. MicroRNA-197 regulates chondrocyte proliferation, migration, and inflammation in pathogenesis of osteoarthritis by targeting EIF4G2. Biosci Rep 2020 Sep 30;40(9).
    doi: 10.1042/BSR20192095pubmed: 32880393google scholar: lookup
  60. Ni Z, Zhou S, Li S, Kuang L, Chen H, Luo X, Ouyang J, He M, Du X, Chen L. Exosomes: roles and therapeutic potential in osteoarthritis. Bone Res 2020;8:25.
    doi: 10.1038/s41413-020-0100-9pubmed: 32596023google scholar: lookup
  61. Lee YH, Sharma AR, Jagga S, Lee SS, Nam JS. Differential Expression Patterns of Rspondin Family and Leucine-Rich Repeat-Containing G-Protein Coupled Receptors in Chondrocytes and Osteoblasts. Cell J 2021 Jan;22(4):437-449.
    doi: 10.22074/cellj.2021.6927pubmed: 32347037google scholar: lookup
  62. Haltmayer E, Ribitsch I, Gabner S, Rosser J, Gueltekin S, Peham J, Giese U, Dolezal M, Egerbacher M, Jenner F. Co-culture of osteochondral explants and synovial membrane as in vitro model for osteoarthritis. PLoS One 2019;14(4):e0214709.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0214709pubmed: 30939166google scholar: lookup
  63. Brown S, Kumar S, Sharma B. Intra-articular targeting of nanomaterials for the treatment of osteoarthritis. Acta Biomater 2019 Jul 15;93:239-257.
    doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2019.03.010pubmed: 30862551google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,344 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.