FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Journal of neuropathology and experimental neurology2008; 67(12); 1187-1193; doi: 10.1097/NEN.0b013e31818f8f51

The role of dietary antioxidant insufficiency on the permeability of the blood-brain barrier.

Abstract: Our previous studies implicated vitamin E deficiency as a risk factor for equine motor neuron disease, a possible model of human amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and showed direct effects of this deficiency on brain vascular endothelium. To gain better understanding of the pathogenesis of equine motor neuron disease, we determined the effects of dietary antioxidant insufficiency and the resultant brain tissue oxidative stress on blood-brain barrier permeability. Rats (n = 40) were maintained on a diet deficient of vitamin E for 36 to 43 weeks; 40 controls were fed a normal diet. Permeability of the blood-brain barrier in the cerebral cortex was investigated using rhodamine B, and lipid peroxidation was measured as a marker for oxidative stress. Animals on the vitamin E-deficient diet showed less weight gain and had higher brain lipid peroxidation compared with the controls. Fluorometric studies demonstrated greater rhodamine B in the perivascular compartment and central nervous system parenchyma in rats on the deficient diet compared with controls. These results suggest that a deficiency in vitamin E increases brain tissue oxidative stress and impairs the integrity of the blood-brain barrier. These observations may have relevance to the pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and other neurologic diseases.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2008-11-20 PubMed ID: 19018244PubMed Central: PMC4865883DOI: 10.1097/NEN.0b013e31818f8f51Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Research Support
  • N.I.H.
  • Extramural

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research investigated the effects of Vitamin E deficiency on the permeability of the blood-brain barrier, revealing that insufficient dietary antioxidants can impair the barrier’s integrity and increase oxidative stress in the brain. This finding can have implications for the development of neurologic diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Background

  • This research was conducted based on prior studies that suggested a link between vitamin E deficiency and equine motor neuron disease. Equine motor neuron disease could potentially serve as a model for studying human amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a devastating neurodegenerative disease.

Methodology

  • The study used rats, with 40 on a diet deficient in Vitamin E for 36 to 43 weeks and another group of 40 rats on a normal diet serving as controls.
  • The permeability of the blood-brain barrier in the cerebral cortex of these rats was examined using Rhodamine B, a compound often used in biological staining.
  • The study also measured lipid peroxidation – a process leading to cell damage – as a biomarker for oxidative stress in the brain.

Findings

  • The rats on the vitamin E-deficient diet showed less weight gain and exhibited higher brain lipid peroxidation compared to the control group, indicating increased oxidative stress.
  • The fluorometric studies showed higher concentrations of Rhodamine B in the perivascular compartment and central nervous system parenchyma (functional tissue in the brain) in rats on the deficient diet. This suggests that there is increased permeability or “leakiness” of the blood-brain barrier due to Vitamin E deficiency.

Implications

  • The researchers concluded that vitamin E deficiency leads to increased oxidative stress in brain tissue and impairs the integrity of the blood-brain barrier.
  • This could have strong implications for understanding the pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and other neurological diseases, potentially informing treatment and preventative strategies in the future.

Cite This Article

APA
Mohammed HO, Starkey SR, Stipetic K, Divers TJ, Summers BA, de Lahunta A. (2008). The role of dietary antioxidant insufficiency on the permeability of the blood-brain barrier. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol, 67(12), 1187-1193. https://doi.org/10.1097/NEN.0b013e31818f8f51

Publication

Journal of neuropathology and experimental neurology
ISSN: 0022-3069
NlmUniqueID: 2985192R
Country: England
Language: English
Volume: 67
Issue: 12
Pages: 1187-1193

Researcher Affiliations

Mohammed, Hussni O
  • Department of Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA. hom1@cornell.edu
Starkey, Simon R
    Stipetic, Korona
      Divers, Thomas J
        Summers, Brian A
          de Lahunta, Alexander

            MeSH Terms

            • Animals
            • Antioxidants / metabolism
            • Blood-Brain Barrier / metabolism
            • Blood-Brain Barrier / physiopathology
            • Body Weight / physiology
            • Cerebral Cortex / metabolism
            • Cerebral Cortex / pathology
            • Cerebral Cortex / physiopathology
            • Disease Models, Animal
            • Food, Formulated
            • Lipid Peroxidation / physiology
            • Male
            • Motor Neuron Disease / metabolism
            • Motor Neuron Disease / pathology
            • Motor Neuron Disease / physiopathology
            • Nutritional Requirements
            • Oxidative Stress / physiology
            • Rats
            • Rats, Sprague-Dawley
            • Rhodamines
            • Vitamin E / metabolism
            • Vitamin E Deficiency / complications
            • Vitamin E Deficiency / metabolism
            • Vitamin E Deficiency / physiopathology

            Grant Funding

            • R21 NS041968 / NINDS NIH HHS
            • R21 NS041968-01A2 / NINDS NIH HHS
            • R21 NS041968-02 / NINDS NIH HHS

            References

            This article includes 56 references
            1. Hirano A. Neuropathology of ALS: an overview.. Neurology 1996 Oct;47(4 Suppl 2):S63-6.
              pubmed: 8858053doi: 10.1212/wnl.47.4_suppl_2.63sgoogle scholar: lookup
            2. Hirano A, Donnenfeld H, Sasaki S, Nakano I. Fine structural observations of neurofilamentous changes in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1984 Sep;43(5):461-70.
              pubmed: 6540799doi: 10.1097/00005072-198409000-00001google scholar: lookup
            3. Sickles DW, McLendon RE. Metabolic variation among rat lumbosacral alpha-motoneurons.. Histochemistry 1983;79(2):205-17.
              pubmed: 6689005doi: 10.1007/bf00489782google scholar: lookup
            4. Cummings JF, de Lahunta A, George C, Fuhrer L, Valentine BA, Cooper BJ, Summers BA, Huxtable CR, Mohammed HO. Equine motor neuron disease; a preliminary report.. Cornell Vet 1990 Oct;80(4):357-79.
              pubmed: 2209016
            5. Valentine BA, de Lahunta A, George C, Summers BA, Cummings JF, Divers TJ, Mohammed HO. Acquired equine motor neuron disease.. Vet Pathol 1994 Jan;31(1):130-8.
              pubmed: 8140721doi: 10.1177/030098589403100122google scholar: lookup
            6. Divers TJ, Mohammed HO, Cummings JF, Valentine BA, De Lahunta A, Jackson CA, Summers BA. Equine motor neuron disease: findings in 28 horses and proposal of a pathophysiological mechanism for the disease.. Equine Vet J 1994 Sep;26(5):409-15.
              pubmed: 7988544doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1994.tb04411.xgoogle scholar: lookup
            7. Cummings JF, de Lahunta A, Summers BA, Mohammed HO, Divers TJ, Valentine BA, Trembicki-Graves K. Eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusions in sporadic equine motor neuron disease: an electron microscopic study.. Acta Neuropathol 1993;85(3):291-7.
              pubmed: 8384774doi: 10.1007/bf00227725google scholar: lookup
            8. Spector R. Micronutrient homeostasis in mammalian brain and cerebrospinal fluid.. J Neurochem 1989 Dec;53(6):1667-74.
              pubmed: 2681535doi: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1989.tb09229.xgoogle scholar: lookup
            9. Ballabh P, Braun A, Nedergaard M. The blood-brain barrier: an overview: structure, regulation, and clinical implications.. Neurobiol Dis 2004 Jun;16(1):1-13.
              pubmed: 15207256doi: 10.1016/j.nbd.2003.12.016google scholar: lookup
            10. Zimmer G, Thurich T, Scheer B. Membrane fluidity and vitamin E. In: Packer L, Fuchs J, editors. Vitamin E in health and disease. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1998. pp. 207–222.
            11. Divers TJ, Cummings JE, de Lahunta A, Hintz HF, Mohammed HO. Evaluation of the risk of motor neuron disease in horses fed a diet low in vitamin E and high in copper and iron.. Am J Vet Res 2006 Jan;67(1):120-6.
              pubmed: 16426221doi: 10.2460/ajvr.67.1.120google scholar: lookup
            12. Traber MG. Vitamin E, oxidative stress and 'healthy ageing'.. Eur J Clin Invest 1997 Oct;27(10):822-4.
              pubmed: 9373759doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2362.1997.1970743.xgoogle scholar: lookup
            13. Fleiss JF. Statistical methods in rates and proportions. John Wiley and Sons; 1973. pp. 23–34.
            14. Liu Y, Hashizume K, Samoto K, Sugita M, Ningaraj N, Asotra K, Black KL. Repeated, short-term ischemia augments bradykinin-mediated opening of the blood-tumor barrier in rats with RG2 glioma.. Neurol Res 2001 Sep;23(6):631-40.
              pubmed: 11547933doi: 10.1179/016164101101198929google scholar: lookup
            15. . SAS Users' Guide. 2005.
            16. De la Rúa-Domènech R, Mohammed HO, Cummings JF, Divers TJ, De Lahunta A, Summers BA. Association between plasma vitamin E concentration and the risk of equine motor neuron disease.. Vet J 1997 Nov;154(3):203-13.
              pubmed: 9414953doi: 10.1016/s1090-0233(97)80021-4google scholar: lookup
            17. de la Rúa-Domènech R, Mohammed HO, Cummings JF, Divers TJ, de Lahunta A, Summers BA. Intrinsic, management, and nutritional factors associated with equine motor neuron disease.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1997 Nov 15;211(10):1261-7.
              pubmed: 9373362
            18. Banks WA, Goulet M, Rusche JR, Niehoff ML, Boismenu R. Differential transport of a secretin analog across the blood-brain and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barriers of the mouse.. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2002 Sep;302(3):1062-9.
              pubmed: 12183664doi: 10.1124/jpet.102.036129google scholar: lookup
            19. Betz Al, Goldstein GW, Katzman R. Blood-brain-cerebrospinal fluid barriers. In: Seigel GI, editor. Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, cellular, and Medical Aspects. New York: Raven Press, Ltd.; 1994. pp. 681–699.
            20. Heo JH, Han SW, Lee SK. Free radicals as triggers of brain edema formation after stroke.. Free Radic Biol Med 2005 Jul 1;39(1):51-70.
              pubmed: 15925278doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2005.03.035google scholar: lookup
            21. Wagner KR, Dean C, Beiler S, Bryan DW, Packard BA, Smulian AG, Linke MJ, de Courten-Myers GM. Plasma infusions into porcine cerebral white matter induce early edema, oxidative stress, pro-inflammatory cytokine gene expression and DNA fragmentation: implications for white matter injury with increased blood-brain-barrier permeability.. Curr Neurovasc Res 2005 Apr;2(2):149-55.
              pubmed: 16181107doi: 10.2174/1567202053586785google scholar: lookup
            22. Alm P, Sharma HS, Hedlund S, Sjöquist PO, Westman J. Nitric oxide in the pathophysiology of hyperthermic brain injury. Influence of a new anti-oxidant compound H-290/51. A pharmacological study using immunohistochemistry in the rat.. Amino Acids 1998;14(1-3):95-103.
              pubmed: 9871448doi: 10.1007/bf01345249google scholar: lookup
            23. Gilgun-Sherki Y, Rosenbaum Z, Melamed E, Offen D. Antioxidant therapy in acute central nervous system injury: current state.. Pharmacol Rev 2002 Jun;54(2):271-84.
              pubmed: 12037143doi: 10.1124/pr.54.2.271google scholar: lookup
            24. Gupta A, Nigam D, Gupta A, Shukla GS, Agarwal AK. Effect of pyrethroid-based liquid mosquito repellent inhalation on the blood-brain barrier function and oxidative damage in selected organs of developing rats.. J Appl Toxicol 1999 Jan-Feb;19(1):67-72.
              pubmed: 9989480doi: 10.1002/(sici)1099-1263(199901/02)19:1<67::aid-jat540>3.0.co;2-#google scholar: lookup
            25. Krizbai IA, Bauer H, Bresgen N, Eckl PM, Farkas A, Szatmári E, Traweger A, Wejksza K, Bauer HC. Effect of oxidative stress on the junctional proteins of cultured cerebral endothelial cells.. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2005 Feb;25(1):129-39.
              pubmed: 15962510doi: 10.1007/s10571-004-1378-7google scholar: lookup
            26. Sharma HS, Drieu K, Alm P, Westman J. Role of nitric oxide in blood-brain barrier permeability, brain edema and cell damage following hyperthermic brain injury. An experimental study using EGB-761 and Gingkolide B pretreatment in the rat.. Acta Neurochir Suppl 2000;76:81-6.
              pubmed: 11450097doi: 10.1007/978-3-7091-6346-7_17google scholar: lookup
            27. Takenaga M, Ohta Y, Tokura Y, Hamaguchi A, Nakamura M, Okano H, Igarashi R. Lecithinized superoxide dismutase (PC-SOD) improved spinal cord injury-induced motor dysfunction through suppression of oxidative stress and enhancement of neurotrophic factor production.. J Control Release 2006 Jan 10;110(2):283-289.
              pubmed: 16332351doi: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2005.10.022google scholar: lookup
            28. Morita T, Mizutani Y, Sawada M, Shimada A. Immunohistochemical and ultrastructural findings related to the blood--brain barrier in the blood vessels of the cerebral white matter in aged dogs.. J Comp Pathol 2005 Jul;133(1):14-22.
              pubmed: 15899493doi: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2005.01.001google scholar: lookup
            29. Kim GW, Gasche Y, Grzeschik S, Copin JC, Maier CM, Chan PH. Neurodegeneration in striatum induced by the mitochondrial toxin 3-nitropropionic acid: role of matrix metalloproteinase-9 in early blood-brain barrier disruption?. J Neurosci 2003 Sep 24;23(25):8733-42.
              pmc: PMC6740428pubmed: 14507973doi: 10.1523/jneurosci.23-25-08733.2003google scholar: lookup
            30. Murakami K, Kondo T, Yang G, Chen SF, Morita-Fujimura Y, Chan PH. Cold injury in mice: a model to study mechanisms of brain edema and neuronal apoptosis.. Prog Neurobiol 1999 Feb;57(3):289-99.
              pubmed: 10096842doi: 10.1016/s0301-0082(98)00047-1google scholar: lookup
            31. Plateel M, Dehouck MP, Torpier G, Cecchelli R, Teissier E. Hypoxia increases the susceptibility to oxidant stress and the permeability of the blood-brain barrier endothelial cell monolayer.. J Neurochem 1995 Nov;65(5):2138-45.
              pubmed: 7595500doi: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.1995.65052138.xgoogle scholar: lookup
            32. Shukla A, Dikshit M, Srimal RC. Status of antioxidants in brain microvessels of monkey and rat.. Free Radic Res 1995 Apr;22(4):303-8.
              pubmed: 7633560doi: 10.3109/10715769509145642google scholar: lookup
            33. Gasche Y, Copin JC, Sugawara T, Fujimura M, Chan PH. Matrix metalloproteinase inhibition prevents oxidative stress-associated blood-brain barrier disruption after transient focal cerebral ischemia.. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2001 Dec;21(12):1393-400.
              pubmed: 11740200doi: 10.1097/00004647-200112000-00003google scholar: lookup
            34. Imaizumi S, Kondo T, Deli MA, Gobbel G, Joó F, Epstein CJ, Yoshimoto T, Chan PH. The influence of oxygen free radicals on the permeability of the monolayer of cultured brain endothelial cells.. Neurochem Int 1996 Aug;29(2):205-11.
              pubmed: 8837050doi: 10.1016/0197-0186(95)00120-4google scholar: lookup
            35. Kondo T, Imaizumi S, Kato I, Deli MA, Jóo F, Chan PH, Epstein CJ, Yoshimoto T. [Effect of free radicals on the permeability of the blood brain barrier--using in vitro blood brain barrier model of human-SOD transgenic mouse].. No To Shinkei 1994 Dec;46(12):1155-61.
              pubmed: 7893533
            36. Gaillard PJ, de Boer AB, Breimer DD. Pharmacological investigations on lipopolysaccharide-induced permeability changes in the blood-brain barrier in vitro.. Microvasc Res 2003 Jan;65(1):24-31.
              pubmed: 12535868doi: 10.1016/s0026-2862(02)00009-2google scholar: lookup
            37. Greenwood J. Mechanisms of blood-brain barrier breakdown.. Neuroradiology 1991;33(2):95-100.
              pubmed: 2046916doi: 10.1007/bf00588242google scholar: lookup
            38. Zysk G, Schneider-Wald BK, Hwang JH, Bejo L, Kim KS, Mitchell TJ, Hakenbeck R, Heinz HP. Pneumolysin is the main inducer of cytotoxicity to brain microvascular endothelial cells caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae.. Infect Immun 2001 Feb;69(2):845-52.
              pmc: PMC97961pubmed: 11159977doi: 10.1128/iai.69.2.845-852.2001google scholar: lookup
            39. Banks WA, Robinson SM, Nath A. Permeability of the blood-brain barrier to HIV-1 Tat.. Exp Neurol 2005 May;193(1):218-27.
              pubmed: 15817280doi: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2004.11.019google scholar: lookup
            40. Berger JR, Avison M. The blood brain barrier in HIV infection.. Front Biosci 2004 Sep 1;9:2680-5.
              pubmed: 15358591doi: 10.2741/1427google scholar: lookup
            41. Chen TY, Lee MY, Chen HY, Kuo YL, Lin SC, Wu TS, Lee EJ. Melatonin attenuates the postischemic increase in blood-brain barrier permeability and decreases hemorrhagic transformation of tissue-plasminogen activator therapy following ischemic stroke in mice.. J Pineal Res 2006 Apr;40(3):242-50.
              pubmed: 16499561doi: 10.1111/j.1600-079x.2005.00307.xgoogle scholar: lookup
            42. Chi OZ, Hunter C, Liu X, Weiss HR. Effects of VEGF and nitric oxide synthase inhibition on blood-brain barrier disruption in the ischemic and non-ischemic cerebral cortex.. Neurol Res 2005 Dec;27(8):864-8.
              pubmed: 16354548doi: 10.1179/016164105x49418google scholar: lookup
            43. Broom KA, Anthony DC, Blamire AM, Waters S, Styles P, Perry VH, Sibson NR. MRI reveals that early changes in cerebral blood volume precede blood-brain barrier breakdown and overt pathology in MS-like lesions in rat brain.. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2005 Feb;25(2):204-16.
              pubmed: 15678123doi: 10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600020google scholar: lookup
            44. Kanda T. [Blood-brain barrier in multiple sclerosis: mechanisms of its breakdown and repair].. Nihon Rinsho 2003 Aug;61(8):1402-8.
              pubmed: 12962030
            45. Kaya M, Cimen V, Kalayci R, Kucuk M, Gurses C, Arican N, Elmas I. Catalase and alpha-tocopherol attenuate blood-brain barrier breakdown in pentylenetetrazole-induced epileptic seizures in acute hyperglycaemic rats.. Pharmacol Res 2002 Feb;45(2):129-33.
              pubmed: 11846625doi: 10.1006/phrs.2001.0915google scholar: lookup
            46. Oztaş B, Kiliç S, Dural E, Ispir T. Influence of antioxidants on the blood-brain barrier permeability during epileptic seizures.. J Neurosci Res 2001 Nov 15;66(4):674-8.
              pubmed: 11746387doi: 10.1002/jnr.10023google scholar: lookup
            47. Oztas B, Akgul S, Seker FB. Gender difference in the influence of antioxidants on the blood-brain barrier permeability during pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures in hyperthermic rat pups.. Biol Trace Elem Res 2007 Jul;118(1):77-83.
              pubmed: 17848733doi: 10.1007/s12011-007-0020-1google scholar: lookup
            48. Gurney ME. What transgenic mice tell us about neurodegenerative disease.. Bioessays 2000 Mar;22(3):297-304.
              pubmed: 10684590doi: 10.1002/(sici)1521-1878(200003)22:3<297::aid-bies12>3.0.co;2-igoogle scholar: lookup
            49. Orrell RW, Lane RJ, Ross M. A systematic review of antioxidant treatment for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/motor neuron disease.. Amyotroph Lateral Scler 2008 Aug;9(4):195-211.
              pubmed: 18608090doi: 10.1080/17482960801900032google scholar: lookup
            50. Ascherio A, Weisskopf MG, O'reilly EJ, Jacobs EJ, McCullough ML, Calle EE, Cudkowicz M, Thun MJ. Vitamin E intake and risk of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.. Ann Neurol 2005 Jan;57(1):104-10.
              pubmed: 15529299doi: 10.1002/ana.20316google scholar: lookup
            51. Desnuelle C, Dib M, Garrel C, Favier A. A double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial of alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) in the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. ALS riluzole-tocopherol Study Group.. Amyotroph Lateral Scler Other Motor Neuron Disord 2001 Mar;2(1):9-18.
              pubmed: 11465936doi: 10.1080/146608201300079364google scholar: lookup
            52. Di Matteo V, Esposito E. Biochemical and therapeutic effects of antioxidants in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.. Curr Drug Targets CNS Neurol Disord 2003 Apr;2(2):95-107.
              pubmed: 12769802doi: 10.2174/1568007033482959google scholar: lookup
            53. Galbussera A, Tremolizzo L, Brighina L, Testa D, Lovati R, Ferrarese C, Cavaletti G, Filippini G. Vitamin E intake and quality of life in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients: a follow-up case series study.. Neurol Sci 2006 Jul;27(3):190-3.
              pubmed: 16897634doi: 10.1007/s10072-006-0668-xgoogle scholar: lookup
            54. Veldink JH, Kalmijn S, Groeneveld GJ, Wunderink W, Koster A, de Vries JH, van der Luyt J, Wokke JH, Van den Berg LH. Intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E reduces the risk of developing amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2007 Apr;78(4):367-71.
              pmc: PMC2077791pubmed: 16648143doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2005.083378google scholar: lookup
            55. Beyrouty P, Chan HM. Co-consumption of selenium and vitamin E altered the reproductive and developmental toxicity of methylmercury in rats.. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2006 Jan-Feb;28(1):49-58.
              pubmed: 16427250doi: 10.1016/j.ntt.2005.11.002google scholar: lookup
            56. Enrione EB, Weeks OI, Kranz S, Shen J. A vitamin E-deficient diet affects nerve regeneration in rats.. Nutrition 1999 Feb;15(2):140-4.
              pubmed: 9990579doi: 10.1016/s0899-9007(98)00167-1google scholar: lookup

            Citations

            This article has been cited 7 times.
            1. Aragón-González A, Shaw PJ, Ferraiuolo L. Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption and Its Involvement in Neurodevelopmental and Neurodegenerative Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2022 Dec 3;23(23).
              doi: 10.3390/ijms232315271pubmed: 36499600google scholar: lookup
            2. Pervin Z, Stephen JM. Effect of alcohol on the central nervous system to develop neurological disorder: pathophysiological and lifestyle modulation can be potential therapeutic options for alcohol-induced neurotoxication. AIMS Neurosci 2021;8(3):390-413.
              doi: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2021021pubmed: 34183988google scholar: lookup
            3. Kakaroubas N, Brennan S, Keon M, Saksena NK. Pathomechanisms of Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption in ALS. Neurosci J 2019;2019:2537698.
              doi: 10.1155/2019/2537698pubmed: 31380411google scholar: lookup
            4. Chiricosta L, Gugliandolo A, Tardiolo G, Bramanti P, Mazzon E. Transcriptomic Analysis of MAPK Signaling in NSC-34 Motor Neurons Treated with Vitamin E. Nutrients 2019 May 15;11(5).
              doi: 10.3390/nᄅ1081pubmed: 31096690google scholar: lookup
            5. Lam V, Hackett M, Takechi R. Antioxidants and Dementia Risk: Consideration through a Cerebrovascular Perspective. Nutrients 2016 Dec 20;8(12).
              doi: 10.3390/n脠828pubmed: 27999412google scholar: lookup
            6. Rodrigues MC, Voltarelli JC, Sanberg PR, Borlongan CV, Garbuzova-Davis S. Immunological aspects in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Transl Stroke Res 2012 Sep;3(3):331-40.
              doi: 10.1007/s12975-012-0177-6pubmed: 24323808google scholar: lookup
            7. Kim S, Jung UJ, Kim SR. Role of Oxidative Stress in Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Antioxidants (Basel) 2024 Nov 28;13(12).
              doi: 10.3390/antiox13121462pubmed: 39765790google scholar: lookup
            Subscribe to our newsletter
            Join 99,727 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.