FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Equine Vet J / Transfusion of hyperimmune plasma for protecting foals again...
Equine veterinary journal2022; 55(3); 376-388; doi: 10.1111/evj.13858

Transfusion of hyperimmune plasma for protecting foals against Rhodococcus equi pneumonia.

Abstract: The bacterium Rhodococcus equi causes pneumonia in foals that is prevalent at breeding farms worldwide. In the absence of an effective vaccine, transfusion of commercial plasma from donor horses hyperimmunised against R. equi is used by many farms to reduce the incidence of pneumonia among foals at farms where the disease is endemic. The effectiveness of hyperimmune plasma for controlling R. equi pneumonia in foals has varied considerably among reports. The purposes of this narrative review are: (1) to review early studies that provided a foundational basis for the practice of transfusion of hyperimmune plasma that is widespread in the United States and in many other countries; (2) to summarise current knowledge of hyperimmune plasma for preventing R. equi pneumonia; (3) to provide an interpretive summary of probable explanations for the variable results among studies evaluating the effectiveness of transfusion of hyperimmune plasma for reducing the incidence of R. equi pneumonia; (4) to review mechanisms by which hyperimmune plasma might mediate protection; and (5) to consider risks of transfusing foals with hyperimmune plasma. Although the weight of evidence supports the practice of transfusing foals with hyperimmune plasma to prevent R. equi pneumonia, many important gaps in our knowledge of this topic remain including the volume/dose of hyperimmune plasma to be transfused, the timing(s) of transfusion, and the mechanism(s) by which hyperimmune plasma mediates protection. Transfusing foals with hyperimmune plasma is expensive, labour-intensive, and carries risks for foals; therefore, alternative approaches for passive and active immunisation to prevent R. equi pneumonia are greatly needed.
© 2022 EVJ Ltd.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2022-08-03 PubMed ID: 35834170DOI: 10.1111/evj.13858Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research article aims to review the practice and effectiveness of using hyperimmune plasma transfusion for protecting foals against Rhodococcus equi pneumonia, a prevalent disease on breeding farms. The study scrutinizes the varied results of the practice’s effectiveness, explores the possible mechanisms of protection, considers associated risks, and highlights the need for alternative solutions.

Objective and Methodology

  • The article is a narrative review that synthesizes early studies, current knowledge, and variable results associated with the application of hyperimmune plasma transfusion.
  • It seeks to provide an interpretative understanding of the practice, which is widespread in the United States and many other countries as a method to counter Rhodococcus equi pneumonia.

Key Findings and Interpretations

  • Transfusion of commercial plasma from donor horses, hyperimmunised against R. equi, is a common practice in farms where pneumonia among foals is endemic, especially given the absence of an effective vaccine.
  • The effectiveness of this approach has shown considerable variation across different reports, warranting an in-depth review and interpretation of these results.

Mechanism of Protection and Risks

  • The review further investigates the mechanisms through which hyperimmune plasma potentially provides protection, in a bid to understand and smoothen the discrepancies found in various studies.
  • Despite the benefits, transfusing foals with hyperimmune plasma comes with certain concerns. It is an expensive and labour-intensive process and carries risks for the foals. The extent of these risks is also a topic the study delves into.

Knowledge Gaps and Need for Alternatives

  • One major finding of the study is the clear gaps present in our knowledge on determining the optimal volume/dose, the appropriate timing of the transfusion, and the exact protection mechanism mediated by the hyperimmune plasma.
  • Given the risks and effort involved, and the gaps in current knowledge, the review highlights the need for exploring alternative approaches for both passive and active immunisation against R. equi pneumonia.

Cite This Article

APA
Kahn SK, Cohen ND, Bordin AI, Coleman MC, Heird JC, Welsh TH. (2022). Transfusion of hyperimmune plasma for protecting foals against Rhodococcus equi pneumonia. Equine Vet J, 55(3), 376-388. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.13858

Publication

Equine veterinary journal
ISSN: 2042-3306
NlmUniqueID: 0173320
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 55
Issue: 3
Pages: 376-388

Researcher Affiliations

Kahn, Susanne K
  • Equine Infectious Disease Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA.
Cohen, Noah D
  • Equine Infectious Disease Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA.
Bordin, Angela I
  • Equine Infectious Disease Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA.
Coleman, Michelle C
  • Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA.
Heird, James C
  • Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA.
Welsh, Thomas H
  • Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Horses
  • Rhodococcus equi
  • Actinomycetales Infections / prevention & control
  • Actinomycetales Infections / veterinary
  • Horse Diseases / prevention & control
  • Horse Diseases / epidemiology
  • Pneumonia, Bacterial / prevention & control
  • Pneumonia, Bacterial / veterinary
  • Pneumonia, Bacterial / epidemiology
  • Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay / veterinary

Grant Funding

  • Texas A&M University

References

This article includes 110 references
  1. Barton MD, Hughes KL. Ecology of Rhodococcus equi. Vet Microbiol 1984;9:65-76.
  2. Hietala SK, Ardans AA. Interaction of Rhodococcus equi with phagocytic cells from R. equi-exposed and non-exposed foals. Vet Microbiol 1987;14:307-20.
  3. Prescott JF. Rhodococcus equi: an animal and human pathogen. Clin Microbiol Rev 1991;4:20-34.
  4. Giguère S, Cohen ND, Chaffin MK, Hines SA, Hondalus MK, Prescott JF. Rhodococcus equi: clinical manifestations, virulence, and immunity. J Vet Intern Med 2011;25:1221-30.
  5. Cohen ND. Rhodococcus equi foal pneumonia. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2014;30:609-22.
  6. Cohen ND, Chaffin MK, Kuskie KR, Syndergaard MK, Blodgett GP, Takai S. Association of perinatal exposure to airborne Rhodococcus equi with risk of pneumonia caused by R. equi in foals. Am J Vet Res 2013;74:102-9.
  7. Cohen ND, O'Conor MS, Chaffin MK, Martens RJ. Farm characteristics and management practices associated with development of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2005;226:404-13.
  8. Coleman MC, Blodgett GP, Bevevino KE, Ivanek R, Cummings KJ, Kent Carter G. Foal-level risk factors associated with development of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia at a Quarter Horse breeding farm. J Equine Vet Sci 2019;72:89-96.
  9. Takai S. Epidemiology of Rhodococcus equi infections: a review. Vet Microbiol 1997;56:167-76.
  10. Becu T, Polledo G, Gaskin JM. Immunoprophylaxis of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals. Vet Microbiol 1997;56:193-204.
  11. Buckley T, McManamon E, Stanbridge S. Resistance studies of erythromycin and rifampin for Rhodococcus equi over a 10-year period. Ir Vet J 2007;60:728-31.
  12. Gressler LT, Petri da Silveira B, Schwab ML, Castagna de Vargas A, Pötter L, de Avila BS. Susceptibility profile of Brazilian Rhodococcus equi isolates against azithromycin, clarithromycin and erythromycin. Cienc Rural 2015;45:680-3.
  13. Knottenbelt DC. Rhodococcus equi infection in foals: a report of an outbreak on a thoroughbred stud in Zimbabwe. Vet Rec 1993;132:79-85.
  14. Liu H, Wang Y, Yan J, Wang C, Hongzuan H. Appearance of multidrug-resistant virulent Rhodococcus equi clinical isolates obtained in China. J Clin Microbiol 2014;52:703.
  15. Mir IA, Kumar B, Taku A, Kumar Bhardwaj R, Bhat MA, Badroo GA. Prevalence and antibiogram study of Rhodococcus equi in equines of Jammu and Kashmir, India. J Equine Sci 2015;26:21-4.
  16. Muscatello G, Anderson GA, Gilkerson JR, Browning GF. Associations between the ecology of virulent Rhodococcus equi and the epidemiology of R. equi pneumonia on Australian thoroughbred farms. Appl Environ Microbiol 2006;72:6152-60.
  17. Petry S, Sevin C, Kozak S, Foucher N, Laugier C, Linster M. Relationship between rifampicin resistance and RpoB substitutions of Rhodococcus equi strains isolated in France. J Glob Antimicrob Resist 2020;23:137-44.
  18. Tel OY, Arserim NB, Keskin O. Seroepidemiological survey of Rhodococcus equi infection in asymptomatic horses and donkeys from southeast Turkey. J S Afr Vet Assoc 2011;82:224-6.
  19. Tirosh-Levy S, Gurbilek SE, Tel OY, Keskin O, Steinman A. Seroprevalence of Rhodococcus equi in horses in Israel. J S Afr Vet Assoc 2017;88:e1-6.
  20. Venner M, Astheimer K, Lammer M, Giguère S. Efficacy of mass antimicrobial treatment of foals with subclinical pulmonary abscesses associated with Rhodococcus equi. J Vet Intern Med 2013;27:171-6.
  21. Witkowski L, Rzewuska M, Takai S, Chrobak-Chmiel D, Kizerwetter-Swida M, Feret M. Molecular characterization of Rhodococcus equi isolates from horses in Poland: pVapA characteristics and plasmid new variant, 85-kb type V. BMC Vet Res 2017;13:35.
  22. Giguère S, Prescott JF. Clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of Rhodococcus equi infections in foals. Vet Microbiol 1997;56:313-34.
  23. Arnold-Lehna D, Venner M, Berghaus LJ, Berghaus R, Giguère S. Changing policy to treat foals with Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in the later course of disease decreases antimicrobial usage without increasing mortality rate. Equine Vet J 2020;52:531-7.
  24. Giguère S, Jacks S, Roberts GD, Hernandez J, Long MT, Ellis C. Retrospective comparison of azithromycin, clarithromycin, and erythromycin for the treatment of foals with Rhodococcus equi pneumonia. J Vet Intern Med 2004;18:568-73.
  25. Stieler Stewart AL, Sanchez LC, Mallicote MF, Muniz AL, Westerterp MS, Burrow JA. Effects of clarithromycin, azithromycin and rifampicin on terbutaline-induced sweating in foals. Equine Vet J 2017;49:624-8.
  26. Ainsworth DM, Eicker SW, Yeagar AE, Sweeney CR, Viel L, Tesarowski D. Associations between physical examination, laboratory, and radiographic findings and outcome and subsequent racing performance of foals with Rhodococcus equi infection: 115 cases (1984-1992). J Am Vet Med Assoc 1998;213:510-5.
  27. Chaffin MK, Cohen ND, Martens RJ. Chemoprophylactic effects of azithromycin against Rhodococcus equi-induced pneumonia among foals at equine breeding farms with endemic infections. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2008;232:1035-47.
  28. Venner M, Reinhold B, Beyerbach M, Feige K. Efficacy of azithromycin in preventing pulmonary abscesses in foals. Vet J 2009;179:301-3.
  29. Burton AJ, Giguère S, Sturgill TL, Bergaus LJ, Slovis NM, Whitman JL. Macrolide- and rifampin-resistant Rhodococcus equi on a horse breeding farm, Kentucky, USA. Emerg Infect Dis 2013;19:282-5.
  30. Huber L, Giguère S, Cohen ND, Slovis NM, Hanafi A, Schuckert A. Prevalence and risk factors associated with emergence of Rhodococcus equi resistance to macrolides and rifampicin in horse-breeding farms in Kentucky, USA. Vet Microbiol 2019;235:243-7.
  31. Huber L, Giguère S, Slovis NM, Carter CN, Barr BS, Cohen ND. Emergence of resistance to macrolides and rifampin in clinical isolates of Rhodococcus equi from foals in central Kentucky, 1995 to 2017. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2019;63:e01714-8.
  32. Alvarez-Narvaez S, Huber L, Giguère S, Hart KA, Berghaus RD, Sanchez S. Epidemiology and molecular basis of multidrug resistance in Rhodococcus equi. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2021;85(2):e00011-21.
  33. Alvarez-Narvaez S, Giguère S, Anastasi E, Hearn J, Scortti M, Vázquez-Boland J. Clonal confinement of a highly mobile resistance element driven by combination therapy in Rhodococcus equi. MBio 2019;10(5):e02260-19.
  34. Ellenberger MA, Kaeberle ML, Roth JA. Equine humoral immune response to Rhodococcus (Corynebacterium) equi. Am J Vet Res 1984;45:2428-30.
  35. Martens RJ, Martens JG, Renshaw HW, Hietala SK. Rhodococcus equi: equine neutrophil chemiluminescent and bactericidal responses to opsonizing antibody. Vet Microbiol 1987;14:277-86.
  36. Martens RJ, Martens JG, Fiske RA, Hietala SK. Rhodococcus equi foal pneumonia: protective effects of immune plasma in experimentally infected foals. Equine Vet J 1989;21:249-55.
  37. Madigan JE, Hietala S, Muller N. Protection against naturally acquired Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals by administration of hyperimmune plasma. J Reprod Fertil Suppl 1991;44:571-8.
  38. Muller NS, Madigan JE. Methods of implementaion of an immunoprophylaxis program for the prevention of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia: results of a 5 year field study. Proc Am Assoc Equine Practnrs 1992;38:193-201.
  39. Chaffin MK, Cohen ND, Martens RJ. Foal-related risk factors associated with development of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia on farms with endemic infection. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003;223:1791-9.
  40. Sanz MG, Loynachan A, Horohov DW. Rhodococcus equi hyperimmune plasma decreases pneumonia severity after a randomised experimental challenge of neonatal foals. Vet Rec 2016;178:261.
  41. Caston SS, McClure SR, Martens RJ, Chaffin MK, Miles KG, Griffith RW. Effect of hyperimmune plasma on the severity of pneumonia caused by Rhodococcus equi in experimentally infected foals. Vet Ther 2006;7:361-75.
  42. Hooper-McGrevy KE, Giguère S, Wilkie BN, Prescott JF. Evaluation of equine immunoglobulin specific for Rhodococcus equi virulence-associated proteins A and C for use in protecting foals against Rhodococcus equi-induced pneumonia. Am J Vet Res 2001;62:1307-13.
  43. Erganis O, Sayin Z, Hadimli HH, Sakmanoglu A, Pinarkara Y, Ozdemir O. The effectiveness of anti-R. equi hyperimmune plasma against R. equi challenge in thoroughbred Arabian foals of mares vaccinated with R. equi vaccine. Sci World J 2014;480732:1-10.
  44. Higuchi T, Arakawa T, Hashikura S, Inui T, Senba H, Takai S. Effect of prophylactic administration of hyperimmune plasma to prevent Rhodococcus equi infection on foals from endemically affected farms. Zentralbl Veterinarmed B 1999;46:641-8.
  45. Chaffin MK, Cohen ND, Martens RJ, O'Conor M, Bernstein LR. Evaluation of the efficacy of gallium maltolate for chemoprophylaxis against pneumonia caused by Rhodococcus equi infection in foals. Am J Vet Res 2011;72:945-57.
  46. Giguère S, Gaskin JM, Miller C, Bowman JL. Evaluation of a commercially available hyperimmune plasma product for prevention of naturally acquired pneumonia caused by Rhodococcus equi in foals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2002;220:59-63.
  47. Hurley JR, Begg AP. Failure of hyperimmune plasma to prevent pneumonia caused by Rhodococcus equi in foals. Aust Vet J 1995;72:418-20.
  48. Perkins GA, Yeager A, Erb HN, Nydam DV, Divers TJ, Bowman JL. Survival of foals with experimentally induced Rhodococcus equi infection given either hyperimmune plasma containing R. equi antibody or normal equine plasma. Vet Ther 2002;3:334-46.
  49. Takai S, Sekizaki T, Ozawa T, Sugawara T, Watanabe Y, Tsubaki S. Association between a large plasmid and 15- to 17-kilodalton antigens in virulent Rhodococcus equi. Infect Immun 1991;59:4056-60.
  50. Takai S, Koike K, Ohbushi S, Tsubaki S. Identification of 15- to 17-kilodalton antigens associated with virulent Rhodococcus equi. J Clin Microbiol 1991;29:439-43.
  51. Takai S, Iie M, Watanabe Y, Tsubaki S, Sekizaki T. Virulence-associated 15- to 17-kilodalton antigens in Rhodococcus equi: temperature-dependent expression and location of the antigens. Infect Immun 1992;60:2995-7.
  52. Giguère S, Hondalus MK, Yager JA, Darrah P, Mosser DM, Prescott JF. Role of the 85-kilobase plasmid and plasmid-encoded virulence-associated protein A in intracellular survival and virulence of Rhodococcus equi. Infect Immun 1999;67:3548-57.
  53. Jain S, Bloom BR, Hondalus MK. Deletion of vapA encoding virulence associated protein A attenuates the intracellular actinomycete Rhodococcus equi. Mol Microbiol 2003;50:115-28.
  54. Sanz MG, Oliveira AF, Page A, Horohov DW. Administration of commercial Rhodococcus equi specific hyperimmune plasma results in variable amounts of IgG against pathogenic bacteria in foals. Vet Rec 2014;175:485.
  55. Kahn SK, Cywes-Bentley C, Blodgett GP, Canaday NM, Turner-Garcia CE, Vinacur M. Antibody activities in hyperimmune plasma against the Rhodococcus equi virulence-associated protein A or poly-N-acetyl glucosamine are associated with protection of foals against rhodococcal pneumonia. PLoS One 2021;16:e0250133.
  56. Cywes-Bentley C, Rocha JN, Bordin AI, Vinacur M, Rehman S, Zaidi TS. Antibody to poly-N-acetyl glucosamine provides protection against intracellular pathogens: mechanism of action and validation in horse foals challenged with Rhodococcus equi. PLoS Pathog 2018;14:e1007160.
  57. Hooper-McGrevy KE, Wilkie BN, Prescott JF. Virulence-associated protein-specific serum immunoglobulin G-isotype expression in young foals protected against Rhodococcus equi pneumonia by oral immunization with virulent R. equi. Vaccine 2005;23:5760-7.
  58. Hooper-McGrevy KE, Wilkie BN, Prescott JF. Immunoglobulin G subisotype responses of pneumonic and healthy, exposed foals and adult horses to Rhodococcus equi virulence-associated proteins. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 2003;10:345-51.
  59. Rocha JN, Dangott LJ, Mwangi W, Alaniz RC, Bordin AI, Cywes-Bentley C. PNAG-specific equine IgG1 mediates significantly greater opsonization and killing of Prescottella equi (formerly Rhodococcus equi) than does IgG4/7. Vaccine 2019;37:1142-50.
  60. Hondalus MK, Diamond MS, Rosenthal LA, Springer TA, Mosser DM. The intracellular bacterium Rhodococcus equi requires Mac-1 to bind to mammalian cells. Infect Immun 1993;61:2919-29.
  61. Harvey AB, Bordin AI, Rocha JN, Bray JM, Cohen ND. Opsonization but not pretreatment of equine macrophages with hyperimmune plasma nonspecifically enhances phagocytosis and intracellular killing of Rhodococcus equi. J Vet Intern Med 2021;35:590-6.
  62. Grondahl G, Johannisson A, Jensen-Waern M. Opsonic effect of equine plasma from different donors. Vet Microbiol 1997;56:227-35.
  63. Demmers S, Johannisson A, Grondahl G, Jensen-Waern M. Neutrophil functions and serum IgG in growing foals. Equine Vet J 2001;33:676-80.
  64. McTaggart C, Yovich JV, Penhale J, Raidal SL. A comparison of foal and adult horse neutrophil function using flow cytometric techniques. Res Vet Sci 2001;71:73-9.
  65. McTaggart C, Penhale J, Raidal SL. Effect of plasma transfusion on neutrophil function in healthy and septic foals. Aust Vet J 2005;83:499-505.
  66. Flores-Ahlschwede P, Kahn SK, Ahlschwede S, Bordin AI, Cohen ND. Transfusion with 2 litres of hyperimmune plasma is superior to transfusion of 1 litre for protecting foals against pneumonia attributed to Rhodococcus equi. Equine Vet Educ 2021;34(1):e67-72.
  67. Kahn SK, Blodgett GP, Canaday NM, Bevevino KE, Rocha JN, Bordin AI. Transfusion with 2 L of hyperimmune plasma is superior to transfusion of 1 L or less for protecting foals against subclinical pneumonia attributed to Rhodococcus equi. J Equine Vet Sci 2019;79:54-8.
  68. Hietala SK, Ardans AA, Sansome A. Detection of Corynebacterium equi-specific antibody in horses by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Am J Vet Res 1985;46:13-5.
  69. Takai S, Ohkura H, Watanabe Y, Tsubaki S. Quantitative aspects of fecal Rhodococcus (Corynebacterium) equi in foals. J Clin Microbiol 1986;23:794-6.
  70. Kuskie KR, Smith JL, Wang N, Carter CN, Chaffin MK, Slovis NM. Effects of location for collection of air samples on a farm and time of day of sample collection on airborne concentrations of virulent Rhodococcus equi at two horse breeding farms. Am J Vet Res 2011;72:73-9.
  71. Horowitz ML, Cohen ND, Takai S, Becu T, Chaffin MK, Chu KK. Application of Sartwell's model (lognormal distribution of incubation periods) to age at onset and age at death of foals with Rhodococcus equi pneumonia as evidence of perinatal infection. J Vet Intern Med 2001;15:171-5.
  72. Casadevall A, Pirofski LA, Joyner MJ. The principles of antibody therapy for infectious diseases with relevance for COVID-19. MBio 2021;12:e03372-20.
  73. Chaffin MK, Martens RJ, Martens JG, Fiske RA. Therapeutic effects of immune plasma in foals with Rhodococcus equi pneumonia. Equine Immunol 1991;23:23-9.
  74. Folmar CN, Cywes-Bentley C, Bordin AI, Rocha JN, Bray JM, Kahn SK. In vitro evaluation of complement deposition and opsonophagocytic killing of Rhodococcus equi mediated by poly-N-acetyl glucosamine hyperimmune plasma compared to commercial plasma products. J Vet Intern Med 2019;33:1493-9.
  75. Kahn SK, Cywes-Bentley C, Blodgett GP, Canaday NM, Turner-Garcia CE, Flores-Ahlschwede P. Randomized, controlled trial comparing Rhodococcus equi and poly-N-acetyl glucosamine hyperimmune plasma to prevent R. equi pneumonia in foals. J Vet Intern Med 2021;35:2912-9.
  76. Sanz MG, Bradway DS, Horohov DW, Baszler TV. Rhodococcus equi-specific hyperimmune plasma administration decreases faecal shedding of pathogenic R. equi in foals. Vet Rec 2019;185:19.
  77. Shaw SD, Cohen ND, Chaffin MK, Blodgett GP, Syndergaard M, Hurych D. Estimating the sensitivity and specificity of real-time quantitative PCR of fecal samples for diagnosis of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals. J Vet Intern Med 2015;29:1712-7.
  78. Chaffin MK, Cohen ND, Martens RJ. Evaluation of equine breeding farm management and preventative health practices as risk factors for development of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003;222:476-85.
  79. Chaffin MK, Cohen ND, Martens RJ. Evaluation of equine breeding farm characteristics as risk factors for development of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003;222:467-75.
  80. Takai S, Chaffin MK, Cohen ND, Hara M, Nakamura M, Kakuda T. Prevalence of virulent Rhodococcus equi in soil from five R. equi-endemic horse-breeding farms and restriction fragment length polymorphisms of virulence plasmids in isolates from soil and infected foals in Texas. J Vet Diagn Invest 2001;13:489-94.
  81. Buntain S, Carter C, Kuskie KR, Smith J, Stepusin R, Chaffin MK. Frequency of Rhodococcus equi in feces of mares in central Kentucky. J Equine Vet Sci 2010;30:191-5.
  82. Grimm MB, Cohen ND, Slovis NM, Mundy GD, Harrington JR, Libal MC. Evaluation of fecal samples from mares as a source of Rhodococcus equi for their foals by use of quantitative bacteriologic culture and colony immunoblot analyses. Am J Vet Res 2007;68:63-71.
  83. Lang J, Kamga-Fotso L, Peyrieux JC, Blondeau C, Lutsch C, Forrat R. Safety and immunogenicity of a new equine tetanus immunoglobulin associated with tetanus-diphtheria vaccine. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2000;63:298-305.
  84. Steven DH, Samuel CA. Anatomy of the placental barrier in the mare. J Reprod Fertil Suppl 1975;23:579-82.
  85. Prescott JF, Patterson MC, Nicholson VM, Morein B, Yager JA. Assessment of the immunogenic potential of Rhodococcus equi virulence associated protein (VapA) in mice. Vet Microbiol 1997;56:213-25.
  86. Tan C, Prescott JF, Patterson MC, Nicholson VM. Molecular characterization of a lipid-modified virulence-associated protein of Rhodococcus equi and its potential in protective immunity. Can J Vet Res 1995;59:51-9.
  87. Fernandez AS, Prescott JF, Nicholson VM. Protective effect against Rhodococcus equi infection in mice of IgG purified from horses vaccinated with virulence associated protein (VapA)-enriched antigens. Vet Microbiol 1997;56:187-92.
  88. Cauchard J, Sevin C, Ballet JJ, Taouji S. Foal IgG and opsonizing anti-Rhodococcus equi antibodies after immunization of pregnant mares with a protective VapA candidate vaccine. Vet Microbiol 2004;104:73-81.
  89. Prescott JF, Nicholson VM, Patterson MC, Zandona Meleiro MC, Caterino de Araujo A, Yager JA. Use of Rhodococcus equi virulence-associated protein for immunization of foals against R. equi pneumonia. Am J Vet Res 1997;58:356-9.
  90. Martens RJ, Martens JG, Fiske RA. Failure of passive immunistation by colostrum from immunised mares to protect foals against Rhodococcus equi pneumonia. Equine Vet J 1991;23:19-22.
  91. Spinella PC, Frazier E, Pidcoke HF, Dietzen DJ, Pati S, Gorkun O. All plasma products are not created equal: characterizing differences between plasma products. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2015;78:S18-25.
  92. Gröndahl G, Johannisson A, Demmers S, Jensen WM. Influence of age and plasma treatment on neutrophil phagocytosis and CD18 expression in foals. Vet Microbiol 1999;65:241-54.
  93. Pandey S, Vyas GN. Adverse effects of plasma transfusion. Transfusion 2012;52(Suppl 1):65S-79S.
  94. Hardefeldt LY, Keuler N, Peek SF. Incidence of transfusion reactions to commercial equine plasma. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio) 2010;20:421-5.
  95. Hurcombe SD, Mudge MC, Hinchcliff KW. Clinical and clinicopathologic variables in adult horses receiving blood transfusions: 31 cases (1999-2005). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2007;231:267-74.
  96. Wilson EM, Holcombe SJ, Lamar A, Hauptman JG, Brooks MB. Incidence of transfusion reactions and retention of procoagulant and anticoagulant factor activities in equine plasma. J Vet Intern Med 2009;23:323-8.
  97. Toy P, Gajic O, Bacchetti P, Looney MR, Gropper MA, Hubmayr R. Transfusion-related acute lung injury: incidence and risk factors. Blood 2012;119:1757-67.
  98. Vlaar AP, Hofstra JJ, Determann RM, Veelo DP, Paulus F, Levi M. Transfusion-related acute lung injury in cardiac surgery patients is characterized by pulmonary inflammation and coagulopathy: a prospective nested case-control study. Crit Care Med 2012;40:2813-20.
  99. Goldman M, Webert KE, Arnold DM, Freedman J, Hannon J, Blajchman MA. Proceedings of a consensus conference: towards an understanding of TRALI. Transfus Med Rev 2005;1:2-31.
  100. Semple JW, Rebetz J, Kapur R. Transfusion-associated circulatory overload and transfusion-related acute lung injury. Blood 2019;133:1840-53.
  101. Tomlinson JE, Kapoor A, Kumar A, Tennant BC, Laverack MA, Beard L. Viral testing of 18 consecutive cases of equine serum hepatitis: a prospective study (2014-2018). J Vet Intern Med 2019;33:251-7.
  102. Aleman M, Nieto JE, Carr EA, Carlson GP. Serum hepatitis associated with commercial plasma transfusion in horses. J Vet Intern Med 2005;19:120-2.
  103. . General requirements for antibody products. 2022.
  104. . Center for veterinary biologics notice no. 19-03. 2019.
  105. Messer NT 4th, Johnson PJ. Idiopathic acute hepatic disease in horses: 12 cases (1982-1992). J Am Vet Med Assoc 1994;204:1934-7.
  106. Li Q, Lin J, Lin Y. Adaptive design implementation in confirmatory trials: methods, practical considerations and case studies. Contemp Clin Trials 2020;98:106096.
  107. McCracken JL, Slovis NM. Use of thoracic ultrasound for the prevention of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia on endemic farms. Proc Am Assoc Equine Pract 2009;55:38-44.
  108. Slovis NM, McCracken JL, Mundy GD. How to use thoracic ultrasound to screen foals for Rhodococcus equi at affected farms. Proc Am Assoc Equine Pract 2005;51:274-8.
  109. Venner M, Rodiger A, Laemmer M, Giguère S. Failure of antimicrobial therapy to accelerate spontaneous healing of subclinical pulmonary abscesses on a farm with endemic infections caused by Rhodococcus equi. Vet J 2012;192:293-8.
  110. Chaffin MK, Cohen ND, Blodgett GP, Syndergaard M. Evaluation of ultrasonographic screening methods for early detection of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals. J Equine Vet Sci 2012;32:20-1.

Citations

This article has been cited 5 times.
  1. Yerlikaya Z, Karagülle B, Otlu B, Muz A. From Paddock to Foal: Prevalence and Genotypic Diversity of Rhodococcus equi on Stud Farms in Türkiye. Vet Sci 2026 Jan 10;13(1).
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci13010072pubmed: 41600728google scholar: lookup
  2. da Silveira BP, Cohen ND, Lawhon SD, Watson RO, Bordin AI. Protective immune response against Rhodococcus equi: An innate immunity-focused review. Equine Vet J 2025 May;57(3):563-586.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.14214pubmed: 39258739google scholar: lookup
  3. Liu L, Cai P, Gu W, Duan X, Gao S, Ma X, Ma Y, Ma S, Li G, Wang X, Cai K, Wang Y, Cai T, Zhao H. Evaluation of vaccine candidates against Rhodococcus equi in BALB/c mice infection model: cellular and humoral immune responses. BMC Microbiol 2024 Jul 8;24(1):249.
    doi: 10.1186/s12866-024-03408-zpubmed: 38977999google scholar: lookup
  4. da Silveira BP, Barhoumi R, Bray JM, Cole-Pfeiffer HM, Mabry CJ, Burghardt RC, Cohen ND, Bordin AI. Impact of surface receptors TLR2, CR3, and FcγRIII on Rhodococcus equi phagocytosis and intracellular survival in macrophages. Infect Immun 2024 Jan 16;92(1):e0038323.
    doi: 10.1128/iai.00383-23pubmed: 38018994google scholar: lookup
  5. Alvarez Narvaez S, Sanchez S. Exploring the Accessory Genome of Multidrug-Resistant Rhodococcus equi Clone 2287. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023 Nov 17;12(11).
    doi: 10.3390/antibiotics12111631pubmed: 37998833google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,357 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.