FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Animals : an open access journal from MDPI2025; 15(15); 2266; doi: 10.3390/ani15152266

Utility of Infrared Thermography for Monitoring of Surface Temperature Changes During Horses’ Work on Water Treadmill with an Artificial River System.

Abstract: Water treadmill (WT) exercise is used for horses' rehabilitation and training. Given that each training needs to be individualized for each horse, the goal is to assess whether infrared thermography (IRT) can serve as a non-invasive tool for daily monitoring of individual training and rehabilitation progress in horses undergoing WT exercise. Fifteen Polish Warmblood school horses were subjected to five WT sessions: dry treadmill, fetlock-depth water, fetlock-depth water with artificial river (AR), carpal-depth water, and carpal-depth water with AR. IRT images, collected pre- and post-exercise, were analyzed for the mean temperature (Tmean) and maximal temperature (Tmax) across 14 regions of interest (ROIs) representing the body surface overlying specific superficial muscles. While on a dry treadmill, Tmean and Tmax increased post-exercise in all ROIs; wetting of the hair coat limited surface temperature analysis in ROIs annotated on limbs. Tmax over the , , , and increased during walking in carpal-depth water, which therefore may be suggested as an indirect indicator of increased activity related to forelimb protraction and flexion-extension of the limb joints. Tmax over the and increased during carpal-depth WT exercise with active AR mode, which may be suggested as an indicator of increased workload including vertical displacement of the trunk.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2025-08-01 PubMed ID: 40805054PubMed Central: PMC12345463DOI: 10.3390/ani15152266Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research article investigates if infrared thermography (IRT), a non-invasive imaging technology, is effective in monitoring individual training and rehabilitation progress in horses, specifically while they train on a water treadmill. This study involved a thorough thermal analysis of horses undergoing five types of treadmill workouts to understand how their body surface temperature changed.

Research Context and Objectives

  • This study was carried out to explore the application of IRT as a daily monitoring tool. IRT is a technique that measures surface temperature based on infrared radiation emitted by the target.
  • The authors conducted this research specifically on horses working on a water treadmill (WT), an exercise solution often used for their rehabilitation and training.
  • Given the individualised nature of horse training, the study aimed to understand if IRT could provide essential feedback about each animal’s condition and progress.

Research Methodology

  • The researchers used fifteen Polish Warmblood school horses for the study. Each of these horses underwent five different WT sessions—dry treadmill, fetlock-depth water, fetlock-depth water with an artificial river (AR), carpal-depth water, and carpal-depth water with AR.
  • IRT images were collected before and after each exercise, focusing on 14 specific ‘regions of interest’ (ROIs). These ROIs represented areas on the horses’ bodies where certain superficial muscles are situated.
  • The team analysed these IRT images for mean temperature (Tmean) and maximum temperature (Tmax) changes.

Research Findings

  • The study found that after exercise on a dry treadmill, both Tmean and Tmax increased in all ROIs. Meanwhile, in wet conditions, analysis of surface temperature in ROIs, especially on the limbs, was limited due to the wetting of the hair coat.
  • The study also observed that Tmax increased over certain body parts during walking in carpal-depth water, indicating that this kind of exercise could stimulate higher physical activity related to forelimb movement and joint flexion-extension of limbs.
  • Furthermore, when horses were exercising in carpal-depth water with the AR mode activated, an increase in Tmax was perceived over certain body areas, possibly indicating increased workload, including trunk’s vertical displacement.

Conclusions

  • The findings suggest that IRT can potentially be used as a monitoring tool for individual horse training and rehabilitation on a water treadmill. Taking IRT images before and after every workout could provide valuable insights about the horse’s physical responses to different types of exercise.
  • However, the researchers also note that hair wetting during water-based treadmill exercise can limit IRT measurement accuracy. Future studies might need to consider appropriate methodologies to overcome this limitation.

Cite This Article

APA
Sikorska U, Maśko M, Rey B, Domino M. (2025). Utility of Infrared Thermography for Monitoring of Surface Temperature Changes During Horses’ Work on Water Treadmill with an Artificial River System. Animals (Basel), 15(15), 2266. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15152266

Publication

Animals : an open access journal from MDPI
ISSN: 2076-2615
NlmUniqueID: 101635614
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 15
Issue: 15
PII: 2266

Researcher Affiliations

Sikorska, Urszula
  • Department of Animal Breeding, Institute of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS-SGGW), 02-787 Warsaw, Poland.
Maśko, Małgorzata
  • Department of Animal Breeding, Institute of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS-SGGW), 02-787 Warsaw, Poland.
Rey, Barbara
  • Scientific Circle of Biotechnologists KNBiotech, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS-SGGW), 02-787 Warsaw, Poland.
Domino, Małgorzata
  • Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS-SGGW), 02-787 Warsaw, Poland.

Grant Funding

  • POIR.01.01.01-00-1001/20 / the National Centre for Research and Development

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

This article includes 59 references
  1. Nankervis K, Tranquille C, McCrae P, York J, Lashley M, Baumann M, King M, Sykes E, Lambourn J, Miskimmin KA. Consensus for the general use of equine water treadmills for healthy horses.. Animals 2021;11:305.
    doi: 10.3390/ani11020305pmc: PMC7912478pubmed: 33530300google scholar: lookup
  2. Tranquille CA, Tacey JB, Walker VA, Nankervis KJ, Murray RC. International survey of equine water treadmills–Why, when and how?. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2018;69:34–42.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2018.05.220google scholar: lookup
  3. Potenza KN, Huggons NA, Jones AR, Rosanowski SM, McIlwraith CW. Comparing racing performance following arthroscopic surgery of metacarpophalangeal/metatarsophalangeal and carpal joints in Thoroughbred racehorses rehabilitated using conventional and underwater treadmill therapies.. Vet. Rec. 2020;187:355.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.105745pubmed: 32967934google scholar: lookup
  4. King MR, Haussler KK, Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Reiser RF II. Effect of underwater treadmill exercise on postural sway in horses with experimentally induced carpal joint osteoarthritis.. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2013;74:971–982.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.74.7.971pubmed: 23802668google scholar: lookup
  5. King MR, Haussler KK, Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Reiser RF, Frisbie DD, Werpy NM. Biomechanical and histologic evaluation of the effects of underwater treadmill exercise on horses with experimentally induced osteoarthritis of the middle carpal joint.. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2017;78:558–569.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.78.5.558pubmed: 28441054google scholar: lookup
  6. Greco–Otto P, Bond S, Sides R, Bayly W, Leguillette R. Conditioning equine athletes on water treadmills significantly improves peak oxygen consumption.. Vet. Rec. 2020;186:250.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.104684pmc: PMC7057798pubmed: 31511399google scholar: lookup
  7. Fair N, Blake S, Blake R. Four Weeks of Incline Water Treadmill Exercise Can Contribute to Increase Epaxial Muscle Profile in Horses.. Vet. Med. Int. 2023;2023:9090406.
    doi: 10.1155/2023/9090406pmc: PMC10645497pubmed: 38023427google scholar: lookup
  8. de Meeûs d’Argenteuil C, Boshuizen B, Oosterlinck M, van de Winkel D, De Spiegelaere W, de Bruijn CM, Goethals K, Vanderperren K, Delesalle CJG. Flexibility of equine bioenergetics and muscle plasticity in response to different types of training: An integrative approach, questioning existing paradigms.. PLoS ONE 2021;16:e0249922.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0249922pmc: PMC8043414pubmed: 33848308google scholar: lookup
  9. Murray RC, Hopkins E, Tracey JB, Nankervis K, Deckers I, MacKechnie–Guire R, Tranquille CA. Change in muscle development of horses undergoing 20 weeks of water treadmill exercise compared with control horses.. Equine Vet. J. 2020;52:554.
  10. Nankervis K, Tranquille C, Tacey J, Deckers I, MacKechnie–Guire R, Walker V, Hopkins E, Newton R, Murray R. Kinematic Responses to Water Treadmill Exercise When Used Regularly within a Sport Horse Training Programme: A Longitudinal, Observational Study.. Animals 2024;14:2393.
    doi: 10.3390/ani14162393pmc: PMC11350662pubmed: 39199927google scholar: lookup
  11. Voss B, Mohr E, Krzywanek H. Effects of aqua–treadmill exercise on selected blood parameters and on heart–rate variability of horses.. J. Vet. Med. Ser. A. 2002;49:137–143.
    doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0442.2002.00420.xpubmed: 12019954google scholar: lookup
  12. Nankervis KJ, Williams RJ. Heart rate responses during acclimation of horses to water treadmill exercise.. Equine Vet. J. 2006;38((Suppl. S36)):110–112.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2006.tb05524.xpubmed: 17402403google scholar: lookup
  13. Greco–Otto P, Bond S, Sides R, Kwong GP, Bayly W, Léguillette R. Workload of horses on a water treadmill: Effect of speed and water height on oxygen consumption and cardiorespiratory parameters.. BMC Vet. Res. 2017;13:360.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-017-1290-2pmc: PMC5704633pubmed: 29179766google scholar: lookup
  14. Sikorska U, Maśko M, Rey B, Domino M. Heart Rate, Hematological, and Biochemical Responses to Exercise on Water Treadmill with Artificial River in School Horses.. Appl. Sci. 2025;15:1772.
    doi: 10.3390/app15041772google scholar: lookup
  15. Krysiak K, Kobryń H, Kobryńczuk F. Anatomia Zwierząt, t. 1.. PWN; Warszawa, Poland: 2008.
  16. Nankervis KJ, Tranquille CA, Chojnacka K, Tacey JB, Deckers I, Newton JR, Murray RC. Effect of speed and water depth on limb and back kinematics in Thoroughbred horses walking on a water treadmill.. Vet. J. 2023;300:106033.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2023.106033pubmed: 37783310google scholar: lookup
  17. Nankervis KJ, Lefrancois K. A comparison of protraction-retraction of the distal limb during treadmill and water treadmill walking in horses.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2018;70:57–62.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2018.08.005google scholar: lookup
  18. Nankervis KJ, Finney P, Launder L. Water depth modifies back kinematics of horses during water treadmill exercise.. Equine Vet. J. 2016;48:732–736.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12519pubmed: 26502104google scholar: lookup
  19. Mendez–Angulo JL, Firshman AM, Groschen DM, Kieffer PJ, Trumble TN. Effect of water depth on amount of flexion and extension of joints of the distal aspects of the limbs in healthy horses walking on an underwater treadmill.. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2013;74:557–566.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.74.4.557pubmed: 23531063google scholar: lookup
  20. McCrae P, Bradley M, Rolian C, Léguillette R. Water height modifies forelimb kinematics of horses during water treadmill exercise.. Comp. Exerc. Physiol. 2021;17:91–98.
    doi: 10.3920/CEP200013google scholar: lookup
  21. Tranquille C, Tacey J, Walker V, Mackechnie–Guire R, Ellis J, Nankervis K, Newton R, Murray R. Effect of water depth on limb and back kinematics in horses walking on a water treadmill.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2022;115:104025.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2022.104025pubmed: 35649493google scholar: lookup
  22. Faber M, Schamhardt H, van Weeren R, Barneveld A. Methodology and validity of assessing kinematics of the thoracolumbar vertebral column in horses on the basis of skin–fixated markers.. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2001;62:301–306.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2001.62.301pubmed: 11277191google scholar: lookup
  23. Mooij MJW, Jans W, Den Heijer GJL, De Pater M, Back W. Biomechanical responses of the back of riding horses to water treadmill exercise.. Vet. J. 2013;198:120–123.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.09.045pubmed: 24360735google scholar: lookup
  24. Scott R, Nankervis K, Stringer C, Westcott K, Marlin D. The effect of water height on stride frequency, stride length and heart rate during water treadmill exercise.. Equine Vet. J. 2010;42:662–664.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00194.xpubmed: 21059077google scholar: lookup
  25. Saitua A, Becero M, Argüelles D, Castejón–Riber C, de Medina AS, Satué K, Muñoz A. Combined effects of water depth and velocity on the accelerometric parameters measured in horses exercised on a water treadmill.. Animals 2020;10:236.
    doi: 10.3390/ani10020236pmc: PMC7070311pubmed: 32028600google scholar: lookup
  26. Fraschetto C, Hatrisse C, Moiroud C, Beaumont A, Audigié F, Chateau H, Denoix J-M, Jacquet S. Water depth and speed may have an opposite effect on the trunk vertical displacement in horses trotting on a water treadmill.. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2024;85:1–9.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.23.10.0236pubmed: 38061192google scholar: lookup
  27. Nankervis KJ, Thomas S, Marlin DJ. Effect of water temperature on heart rate of horses during water treadmill exercise.. Comp. Exerc. Physiol. 2008;5:127–131.
    doi: 10.1017/S1478061509342358google scholar: lookup
  28. Borgia LA, Valberg SJ, Essen–Gustavsson B. Differences in the metabolic properties of gluteus medius and superficial digital flexor muscles and the effect of water treadmill training in the horse.. Equine Vet. J. 2010;42:665–670.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00229.xpubmed: 21059078google scholar: lookup
  29. Lindner A, Wäschle S, Sasse HHL. Physiological and blood biochemical variables in horses exercising on a treadmill submerged in water.. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2012;96:563–569.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0396.2011.01179.xpubmed: 21692872google scholar: lookup
  30. Vincze A, Szabó C, Szabó V, Veres S, Ütő D, Hevesi Á. The effect of deep water aqua treadmill training on the plasma biochemical parameters of show jumpers.. Agric. Conspec. Sci. 2013;78:289–293.
  31. Tokuriki M, Ohtsuki R, Kal M, Hiraga A, Oki H, Miyahara Y, Aoki O. EMG activity of the muscles of the neck and forelimbs during different forms of locomotion.. Equine Vet. J. 1999;31((Suppl. S30)):231–234.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05224.xpubmed: 10659258google scholar: lookup
  32. Yarnell K, Fleming J, Stratton TD, Brassington R. Monitoring changes in skin temperature associated with exercise in horses on a water treadmill by use of infrared thermography.. J. Therm. Biol. 2014;45:110–116.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2014.08.003pubmed: 25436959google scholar: lookup
  33. Eddy AL, Van Hoogmoed LM, Snyder JR. The role of thermography in the management of equine lameness.. Vet. J. 2001;162:172–181.
    doi: 10.1053/tvjl.2001.0618pubmed: 11681868google scholar: lookup
  34. Tunley BV, Henson FMD. Reliability and repeatability of thermographic examination and the normal thermographic image of the thoracolumbar region in the horse.. Equine Vet. J. 2004;36:306–312.
    doi: 10.2746/0425164044890652pubmed: 15163036google scholar: lookup
  35. Hodgson DR, Davis RE, McConaghy FF. Thermoregulation in the horse in response to exercise.. Brit. Vet. J. 1994;150:219–235.
    doi: 10.1016/S0007-1935(05)80003-Xpubmed: 8044664google scholar: lookup
  36. Soroko M, Śpitalniak–Bajerska K, Zaborski D, Poźniak B, Dudek K, Janczarek I. Exercise–induced changes in skin temperature and blood parameters in horses.. Arch. Anim. Breed. 2019;62:205–213.
    doi: 10.5194/aab-62-205-2019pmc: PMC6852865pubmed: 31807631google scholar: lookup
  37. Witkowska–Piłaszewicz O, Maśko M, Domino M, Winnicka A. Infrared thermography correlates with lactate concentration in blood during race training in horses.. Animals 2020;10:2072.
    doi: 10.3390/ani10112072pmc: PMC7695344pubmed: 33182281google scholar: lookup
  38. Verdegaal ELJ, Howarth GS, McWhorter TJ, Delesalle CJ. Thermoregulation during field exercise in horses using skin temperature monitoring.. Animals 2023;14:136.
    doi: 10.3390/ani14010136pmc: PMC10777899pubmed: 38200867google scholar: lookup
  39. Domino M, Borowska M, Kozłowska N, Trojakowska A, Zdrojkowski Ł, Jasiński T, Smyth G, Maśko M. Selection of image texture analysis and color model in the advanced image processing of thermal images of horses following exercise.. Animals 2022;12:444.
    doi: 10.3390/ani12040444pmc: PMC8868218pubmed: 35203152google scholar: lookup
  40. Domino M, Borowska M, Trojakowska A, Kozłowska N, Zdrojkowski Ł, Jasiński T, Smyth G, Maśko M. The effect of rider: Horse bodyweight ratio on the superficial body temperature of horse’s thoracolumbar region evaluated by advanced thermal image processing.. Animals 2022;12:195.
    doi: 10.3390/ani12020195pmc: PMC8772910pubmed: 35049815google scholar: lookup
  41. Valberg SJ. Muscular causes of exercise intolerance in horses.. Vet. Clin. N. Am. 1996;12:495–515.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30269-9pubmed: 8938958google scholar: lookup
  42. Costa LR. Manual of Clinical Procedures in the Horse.. Wiley–Blackwell; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2017. History and Physical Examination of the Horse; pp. 27–58.
  43. Keegan KG, Dent EV, Wilson DA, Janicek J, Kramer J, Lacarrubba A, Walsh DM, Cassells MW, Esther TM, Schiltz P. Repeatability of subjective evaluation of lameness in horses.. Equine Vet. J. 2010;42:92–97.
    doi: 10.2746/042516409X479568pubmed: 20156242google scholar: lookup
  44. Maśko M, Domino M, Lewczuk D, Jasiński T, Gajewski Z. Horse behavior, physiology and emotions during habituation to a treadmill.. Animals 2020;10:921.
    doi: 10.3390/ani10060921pmc: PMC7341274pubmed: 32466423google scholar: lookup
  45. Soroko M, Howell K. Infrared Thermography: Current Applications in Equine Medicine.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2018;60:90–96.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2016.11.002google scholar: lookup
  46. Ashdown RR, Done SH. Color Atlas of Veterinary Anatomy.. 2nd ed. Mosby–Wolfe; London, UK: 2000.
  47. Hartmann E, Bøe KE, Jørgensen GHM, Mejdell CM, Dahlborn K. Management of horses with focus on blanketing and clipping practices reported by members of the Swedish and Norwegian equestrian community.. J. Anim. Sci. 2017;95:1104–1117.
    doi: 10.2527/jas2016.1146pubmed: 28380504google scholar: lookup
  48. Steinhoff–Wagner J. Coat clipping of horses: A survey.. J. Appl. Anim. Welf. Sci. 2019;22:171–187.
    doi: 10.1080/10888705.2018.1454319pubmed: 29607678google scholar: lookup
  49. Maśko M, Witkowska-Piłaszewicz O, Jasiński T, Domino M. Thermal features, ambient temperature and hair coat lengths: Limitations of infrared imaging in pregnant primitive breed mares within a year.. Reprod. Domest. Anim. 2021;56:1315–1328.
    doi: 10.1111/rda.13994pmc: PMC9292174pubmed: 34310786google scholar: lookup
  50. Gefen A, Cohen LP, Amrani G, Hoffer O, Ovadia-Blechman Z. The roles of infrared thermography in pressure ulcer research with focus on skin microclimate induced by medical devices and prophylactic dressings.. Wounds Int. 2019;10:8–15.
  51. Soroko–Dubrovina M, Zielińska P, Dudek KD, Śniegucka K, Nawrot K. Thermal Effects of High–Intensity Laser Therapy on the Temporomandibular Joint Area in Clinically Healthy Racehorses—A Pilot Study.. Animals 2025;15:1426.
    doi: 10.3390/ani15101426pmc: PMC12108243pubmed: 40427303google scholar: lookup
  52. Simon EL, Gaughan EM, Epp T, Spire M. Influence of exercise on thermographically determined surface temperatures of thoracic and pelvic limbs in horses.. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2006;229:1940–1944.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.229.12.1940pubmed: 17173534google scholar: lookup
  53. Soroko M, Howell K, Dudek K, Wilk I, Zastrzeżyńska M, Janczarek I. A pilot study into the utility of dynamic infrared thermography for measuring body surface temperature changes during treadmill exercise in horses.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2018;62:44–46.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2017.12.010google scholar: lookup
  54. Bouzigon R, Grappe F, Ravier G, Dugue B. Whole–and partial–body cryostimulation/cryotherapy: Current technologies and practical applications.. J. Therm. Biol. 2016;61:67–81.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2016.08.009pubmed: 27712663google scholar: lookup
  55. van Eps AW. Therapeutic hypothermia (cryotherapy) to prevent and treat acute laminitis.. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 2010;26:125–133.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2010.01.002pubmed: 20381741google scholar: lookup
  56. Vincze A, Szabó C, Bakos Z, Szabó V, Veres S, Ütő D, Hevesi Á. Effect of dietary energy source on the plasma parameters of equine athletes trained in a deep water aqua treadmill.. Ital. J. Anim. Sci. 2016;15:137–143.
    doi: 10.1080/1828051X.2015.1128688google scholar: lookup
  57. Vincze A, Szabó C, Veres S, Uto D, Hevesi AT. Fitness improvement of show jumping horses with deep water treadmill training.. Vet. Med. 2017;62:192–199.
    doi: 10.17221/135/2016-VETMEDgoogle scholar: lookup
  58. Silvers BL, Leatherwood JL, Arnold CE, Nielsen BD, Huseman CJ, Dominguez BJ, Glass KG, Martinez RE, Much ML, Bradbery AN. Effects of aquatic conditioning on cartilage and bone metabolism in young horses.. J. Anim. Sci. 2020;98:skaa239.
    doi: 10.1093/jas/skaa239pmc: PMC7431214pubmed: 32717078google scholar: lookup
  59. Satchell G, McGrath M, Dixon J, Pfau T, Weller R. Effects of time of day, ambient temperature and relative humidity on the repeatability of infrared thermographic imaging in horses.. Equine Vet. J. 2015;47:13–14.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12486_30pubmed: 26375175google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,727 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.