West Nile virus in horses – What do you need to know to diagnose the disease?

1. Gray TJ, Webb CE. A review of the epidemiological and clinical aspects of West Nile virus.. Int J Gen Med 2014;7:193-203.
   pmc: PMC3990373pubmed: 24748813doi: 10.2147/ijgm.s59902google scholar: lookup
2. Weese JS, Baird JD, DeLay J, Kenney DG, Staempfli HR, Viel L, Parent J, Smith-Maxie L, Poma R. West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in horses in Ontario: 28 cases.. Can Vet J 2003 Jun;44(6):469-73.
   pmc: PMC340169pubmed: 12839240
3. Government of Canada. [Last accessed August 9, 2018]. [homepage on the Internet] Health of Animals Regulations (C.R.C., c. 296) Part X, Section 91.2. Available from: http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/C.R.C.,_c._296/page-10.html#h-51.
4. Government of Canada. [Last accessed August 9, 2018]. [homepage on the Internet] Health of Animals Regulations (C.R.C., c. 296) Part X, Section 91.2. Available from: http://www.inspection.gc.ca/animals/terrestrial-animals/diseases/immediately-notifiable/west-nile-virus/surveillance/eng/1346131121021/1346131213336.
5. Jonquiere FJ, van der Heijden HMJF, van Maanen C, Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan MM. West Nile virus vaccination in horses — IgM and IgG responses after injection in different muscles. Pferdeheilkunde 2011;27:412–416.
6. Khatibzadeh SM, Gold CB, Keggan AE, Perkins GA, Glaser AL, Dubovi EJ, Wagner B. West Nile virus-specific immunoglobulin isotype responses in vaccinated and infected horses.. Am J Vet Res 2015 Jan;76(1):92-100.
   pubmed: 25535666doi: 10.2460/ajvr.76.1.92google scholar: lookup

Citations

1. Mencattelli G, Silverj A, Iapaolo F, Ippoliti C, Teodori L, Di Gennaro A, Curini V, Candeloro L, Conte A, Polci A, Morelli D, Perrotta MG, Marini G, Rosà R, Monaco F, Segata N, Rizzoli A, Rota-Stabelli O, Savini G, West Nile Working Group. Epidemiological and Evolutionary Analysis of West Nile Virus Lineage 2 in Italy. Viruses 2022 Dec 22;15(1).
   doi: 10.3390/v15010035pubmed: 36680076google scholar: lookup
2. Eaton SL, Murdoch F, Rzechorzek NM, Thompson G, Hartley C, Blacklock BT, Proudfoot C, Lillico SG, Tennant P, Ritchie A, Nixon J, Brennan PM, Guido S, Mitchell NL, Palmer DN, Whitelaw CBA, Cooper JD, Wishart TM. Modelling Neurological Diseases in Large Animals: Criteria for Model Selection and Clinical Assessment. Cells 2022 Aug 25;11(17).
   doi: 10.3390/cells11172641pubmed: 36078049google scholar: lookup
3. Di Pol G, Crotta M, Taylor RA. Modelling the temperature suitability for the risk of West Nile Virus establishment in European Culex pipiens populations. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022 Sep;69(5):e1787-e1799.
   doi: 10.1111/tbed.14513pubmed: 35304820google scholar: lookup
4. Levasseur A, Arsenault J, Paré J. Surveillance of West Nile virus in horses in Canada: A retrospective study of cases reported to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency from 2003 to 2019. Can Vet J 2021 May;62(5):469-476.
   pubmed: 33967285
5. Peňazziová K, Korytár Ľ, Pastorek P, Pistl J, Rusňáková D, Szemes T, Čabanová V, Ličková M, Boršová K, Klempa B, Csank T. Genetic Characterization of a Neurovirulent West Nile Virus Variant Associated with a Fatal Great Grey Owl Infection. Viruses 2021 Apr 17;13(4).
   doi: 10.3390/v13040699pubmed: 33920598google scholar: lookup
6. Byas AD, Ebel GD. Comparative Pathology of West Nile Virus in Humans and Non-Human Animals. Pathogens 2020 Jan 7;9(1).
   doi: 10.3390/pathogens9010048pubmed: 31935992google scholar: lookup
7. de Oliveira Ferreira LV, Maia L, Barberini DJ, Takahira RK, de Vasconcelos Machado VM, Machado GF, de Melo GD, Amorim RM. Feasibility and safety of intrathecal transplantation of allogeneic bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells in horses. Vet Res Commun 2025 Sep 29;49(6):333.
   doi: 10.1007/s11259-025-10920-8pubmed: 41021098google scholar: lookup
8. Lobato OL, Nogueira TDS, Lima TET, Andrade FJDC, de Macedo MGG, Pereira RS, Xavier J, Amorim MR, Barbosa PP, da Rocha AS, Silva SDC, Alcantara LCJ, de Souza WM, Proenca-Modena JL, Costa ÉA, Lima Neto AS, Feitosa LCS, Pires E Cruz MDS, Silva SMMS, Baêta SAF, Vieira MADCES, Deem SL, Catenacci LS. Orthoflavivirus nilense surveillance in the State of Piauí, northeastern Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2025;120:e240218.
   doi: 10.1590/0074-027602402180pubmed: 40638500google scholar: lookup
9. Bruno L, Nappo MA, Frontoso R, Perrotta MG, Di Lecce R, Guarnieri C, Ferrari L, Corradi A. West Nile Virus (WNV): One-Health and Eco-Health Global Risks. Vet Sci 2025 Mar 19;12(3).
   doi: 10.3390/vetsci12030288pubmed: 40266979google scholar: lookup
10. Cendejas PM, Goodman AG. Vaccination and Control Methods of West Nile Virus Infection in Equids and Humans. Vaccines (Basel) 2024 May 1;12(5).
    doi: 10.3390/vaccines12050485pubmed: 38793736google scholar: lookup
11. Naveed A, Eertink LG, Wang D, Li F. Lessons Learned from West Nile Virus Infection:Vaccinations in Equines and Their Implications for One Health Approaches. Viruses 2024 May 14;16(5).
    doi: 10.3390/v16050781pubmed: 38793662google scholar: lookup
12. Rusenova N, Rusenov A, Chervenkov M, Sirakov I. Seroprevalence of West Nile Virus among Equids in Bulgaria in 2022 and Assessment of Some Risk Factors. Vet Sci 2024 May 9;11(5).
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci11050209pubmed: 38787181google scholar: lookup