Mares and horses are integral components of equine studies, focusing on the reproductive and behavioral aspects of equine biology. Mares, or adult female horses, play a significant role in breeding programs and are often studied for their reproductive physiology, gestation, and maternal behaviors. Horses, as a broader category, encompass both sexes and all age groups, providing a comprehensive view of equine anatomy, physiology, and behavior. Research in this area often investigates the differences and similarities between mares and other horses in terms of hormonal cycles, reproductive health, and social interactions. This page compiles peer-reviewed studies and scholarly articles that explore the biological and behavioral characteristics of mares and horses, offering insights into their roles in equine science and management.
Long JR, Mitchell L.Aspergillosis, caused by species of Aspergillus, is primarily a respiratory infection but may
occasionally be generalized (1). This genus is
distributed widely in nature and almost any
substrate supplying organic matter and moisture will support growth of the fungus. It grows
especially well on damp hay, straw and grain
that has heated during storage. Aspergillus
fumigatus is responsible for the majority of
cases of aspergillosis in animals and birds.
This organism causes acute respiratory infection
when susceptible animals are exposed to heavy
concentrations of airbqrne conidia. Alt...
Rouse BT, Ingram DG.Thirty-six samples of colostrum and milk were collected from ponies at various intervals after parturition. Levels of total protein and immunoglobulins IgG and IgG(T) were determined. In samples collected in the first 3 hours , the total protein concentration was approximately twice that of serum protein and the immunoglobulins IgG and IgG(T) accounted for 30 per cent and 10 per cent respectively of this protein. The ratio of IgG to IgG(T) was similar to that in serum. After suckling, a marked decline in both total protein and immunoglobulin concentration occurred. In addition, the relative co...
Johnston RH, Kamstra LD, Kohler PH.A CONDITION known as “foal heat” scours often develops in young foals during the mare's first estrum, which usually commences about 9 days post-partum. Various causative factors that have been suggested, although not scientifically established, include: (1) Changes in milk composition during the heat period (Henry and Morrison, 1923; Linton, 1931; Holmes and Lindquist, 1947; Doll, 1956), (2) ingestation of genital discharge (Sohnie, 1910; Udall, 1943; Siegmond, 1961), (3) ingestation of straw, feces, grass and other foreign matter (Udall, 1943) and (4) overloading of the foal's digestive t...
Vandeplassche M, Podliachouk L, Beaud R.A study has been made of 44 cases of twin pregnancy in mares. The fetuses, foals, fetal membranes and blood groups of parents and foals were examined in order to determine the incidence of chorio-vascular anastomosis, blood chimaerism and freemartinism. All of the twins proved to be dizygotic and 33 of the 34 pregnancies were bicornual. Fusion of the chorion was seen in 14 of 22 placentas and macroscopic choriovascular bridges were observed in five of these, although blood chimaerism was diagnosed in 11 of 25 cases (44 per cent) examined. This would indicate a high incidence of microchoriovasc...
Gronwall R, Brown MP.Para-aminohippuric acid (PAHA, 0.1 mg/min/kg of body weight) was infused IV into 2 mares, followed by concurrent IV infusion of PAHA and probenecid (0.075, 0.15, 0.25, or 0.35 mg of probenecid/min/kg). Probenecid infusion reduced the clearance of PAHA at serum probenecid concentrations greater than 55 micrograms/ml. At 12-hour intervals, probenecid (in 5 repeated doses - 50, 75, 100, or 200 mg/kg) was administered by gavage to 2 mares. Mean serum probenecid concentration was greater than 55 micrograms/ml for all dosages. At dosages less than 200 mg/kg, accumulation of probenecid in the serum w...
Thomson P, Pareja J, Núñez A, Santibáñez R, Castro R.Culture-independent techniques have made it possible to expand the knowledge about the composition of bacterial communities present in the healthy uterus and their role in health and disease, mainly in humans. However, in animals like mares, there is a dearth of information regarding this area. To narrow this knowledge gap, the objective of this study was to identify and characterize the composition and function of the uterine microbiome of a group of Chilean purebred mares (CPM), an equine breed with the oldest genealogical record in South America and an economical important reproductive indu...
Leal GR, Monteiro CAS, Carvalheira LR, Souza-Fabjan JMG.Simulated Physiological Oocyte Maturation (SPOM) mimics in vitro the physiological events of oocyte maturation. The system uses cAMP modulators in two steps (pre IVM and IVM) and has presented promising results that are arousing the curiosity of IVF programs in different animal species, generating several papers, adaptations, and controversies worldwide. This study systematically analyses the data in the literature on the use of SPOM and compares the outcomes to the original paper (Albuz et al. Hum. Rep., 25: 2999-3011 2010), classifying them into success or failure. The PubMed, Scopus, and ...
Silvia PJ, Squires EL, Nett TM.Four groups of mares, representing anestrus (AN; n = 8), early transition (ET; n = 7), late transition (LT; n = 8) and estrus (EST; n = 12) were used to examine release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) after a bolus injection of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) during the transition from anestrus into the breeding season. Estrous mares received GnRH on d 2 or 3 of estrus in the cycle immediately preceding slaughter. Anestrous, ET and LT mares received GnRH exactly 1 wk prior to slaughter. A single injection of GnRH (Sigma LHRH, L-0507, 2.0 micrograms/kg b...
Iuliano MF, Squires EL, Cook VM.A 2 X 2 cross-classified experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of age of equine embryo (7 vs 8 d postovulation) and method of transfer (surgical vs nonsurgical) on pregnancy rates at 50 d of gestation. Embryos were recovered 7 or 8 d postovulation using a Foley catheter and 3 liters of modified Dulbecco's phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Upon identification, the embryos were placed in millipore-filtered PBS containing 20% heat-inactivated steer serum and maintained at room temperature until transferred. At the time of recovery, embryos were randomly assigned to be transferred eith...
Dutta SK, Campbell DL.Blastic transformation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells and serum neutralization antibody levels for equine herpesivurs type 1 were measured in 19 mares from three farms at the time of termination of their pregnancy by normal foaling or viral abortion. The stimulation indexes of lymphocytes obtained from the mares from two farms (Farm 1 and 2) which had virus abortions, ranged from 2.1 to 10.8. But there was no significant difference in stimulation index levels between the aborting and normal foaling mares on these two farms. Equine herpesvirus type 1 was isolated from the mononuclear cel...
Anaya G, Fernández ME, Valera M, Molina A, Azcona F, Azor P, Solé M, Moreno-Millán M, Demyda-Peyrás S.Twin foaling is associated with chimaerism in several domestic species and is recognised in horses. In this study, 21,097 purebred Spanish (Pura Raza Español) horse births from the 2015 to 2016 breeding season were investigated for chimaerism. Twin foaled and chimaeric individuals were assessed on the basis of foaling records, short-tandem repeat (STR) parentage test results and a sex-linked STR-based technique. Fourteen twin pregnancies with 23 twin foals born alive were identified (0.066% twin foaling prevalence), including five blood chimaeric cases (21.7%; overall prevalence 0.011%), sugg...
Martin KL, Hoffman RM, Kronfeld DS, Ley WB, Warnick LD.Changes in serum concentrations of Ca and parathyroid hormone (PTH) may develop in periparturient mares, may be influenced by dietary Ca, and may be associated with changes in Ca concentration of mammary secretion. Milk and blood samples were taken from eight mares on Farm A and eight on Farm B for 10 d before parturition and from four mares on each farm for 5 d postpartum. Milk Ca was measured by two commercial tests. Serum samples were analyzed for PTH and total Ca in 16 mares and for ionized Ca in six (Farm A). Parturition was induced in eight mares on Farm A and four on Farm B; no signific...
Kenney RM, Ganjam VK, Cooper WL, Lauderdale JW.Seventy-three Standardbred and Thoroughbred mares in clinical anoestrus during the breeding season were treated with PGF2alpha. The mares were divided into four categories; foaling, barren, maiden and unknown. The response was consistent in all groups. Mares at Days 2 to 4 of dioestrus showed no decrease in plasma progesterone levels, and those at Days 6 to 8 showed a return of progesterone to baseline levels (less than 1 ng/ml) in 24 to 48 hr after treatment. Plasma progesterone levels returned to basal levels in 24 to 48 hr in 93% of mares; progesterone levels had not changed by 96 hr in 7% ...
Krohn J, Ennen S, Hospes R, Nieth J, Wehrend A.An effective long-term treatment is necessary for mares with pyometra, because the condition tends to recur. In many affected animals, several conformational or anatomical anomalies contribute to impaired uterine clearance. Ovariohysterectomy is the surgical procedure of choice. Conservative therapy consists of draining and flushing the uterus, and systemic anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial treatment. Uterine secretions tend to accumulate again after local treatment, especially in mares with poor vaginal conformation or cervical adhesions. Herein, we describe three cases in which a cervical ...
Mantovani R, Sartori C, Pigozzi G.This study investigated some aspects of breeding management in the Italian Heavy Draught Horse breed, aiming at improving its efficiency at stud farm level. A first aim was to evaluate the risk of unsuccessful reproduction in mares after an early (3 years) or normal (4 years) age at first foaling, in interaction with different stud rearing systems. A second objective was the examination of the mean time length in which young 2-year-old stallions maintain a genetic superiority on older proven stallions, identifying a 'genetic lifespan' in which young stallions can be safely used for reducing th...
Nett TM, Pickett BW.Two studies were conducted to determine the relationship between LH and progesterone and between PMSG and progesterone during pregnancy in mares. In the first, samples of jugular blood were collected daily from 7 mares from the first day of oestrus until Day 28 of pregnancy, and in the second, samples were collected weekly from 14 mares from Day 35 of gestation until parturition. In an attempt to prolong secretion of progesterone from accessory corpora lutea, 7 of these 14 mares were injected with increasing doses (2--10 mg) of diethylstilboestrol (DES) between Days 84 and 142 of gestation. Th...
Enders AC, Jones CJ, Lantz KC, Schlafke S, Liu IK.Invasion of trophoblast cells of the chorionic girdle into the endometrium and their subsequent dependence as endometrial cup cells on the maternal vascular system are unique features of equine gestation. This study of exocrine secretion by the endometrial glands and endocrine secretion by the cup cells was initiated to examine the relationships between and the effects of two disparate epithelial cell types sharing the endometrium. Endometrial cups were examined from day 36 to day 83 of gestation by light and electron microscopy, and immunohistochemical and lectin analysis. As the cup cells in...
Hülskötter K, Aurich C, Köhne M, Baumgärtner W, Wohlsein P.Adenomatous hyperplasia of the equine allantoic epithelium (EAAH) is an infrequently observed nodular or plaque-like change in the placenta of the mare which is presented as a case description. EAAH is most frequently diagnosed in cases of aborted fetuses and is associated with inflammatory changes of the placenta. Histologically, different degrees of EAAH may be distinguished; however, these are not associated with specific clinical signs, degree of inflammation, a particular pathogen, or the frequency of abortions. It is assumed that EAAH represents a secondary, reactive change and has per s...
Conforti VA, Vanderwall DK, Woods GL.The in vitro maturation (IVM) of equine oocytes is typically performed using various synthetic media; however, an optimal IVM system for equine oocytes has not been developed. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of two types of follicular fluid (FF) obtained from cyclic mares and two incubation intervals for the IVM of equine cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs). Follicular fluid was collected from medium-sized (20-29 mm diameter) and large (e30 mm; post-human chorionic gonadotrophin administration) follicles using transvaginal ultrasound-guided follicle aspiration. Compact (n ...
Ellington JE, Ball BA, Blue BJ, Wilker CE.Reliable capacitation of equine spermatozoa has been a major obstacle in the development of equine in vitro fertilization. Experiments were done to compare in vitro capacitation of equine spermatozoa by use of heparin/caffeine, calcium ionophore, uterine tube epithelial cell (UTEC)-conditioned medium, and direct culturing of spermatozoa with UTEC (coculturing). Capacitation-like changes, as determined by chlortetracycline membrane staining patterns, developed with UTEC-conditioned medium and coculturing, equivalent to that with calcium ionophore. Both of these treatments induced more (P < 0.05...
Shivers CA, Liu IK.Sera and follicular fluid from mares previously determined as having antibodies to the zona pellucida were exposed to porcine ovarian oocytes before insemination with boar spermatozoa in vitro. There was a dramatic decline in the number of spermatozoa bound to zonae compared to treatments with sera and follicular fluid from mares negative for zona antibodies. These data suggest that antibodies reactive with the zona pellucida may be responsible for reduced or even complete infertility in some mares. In a group of 50 randomly selected mares tested for antizona antibodies, 2 pregnant mares were ...
Driancourt MA, Palmer E.An experiment was carried out on pony mares to establish the time of the oestrous cycle at which ovarian follicles are recruited for ovulation. In one group (n=7), the cycle was interrupted at the preovulatory stage by removing the preovulatory follicle; in another group (n=13) the cycle was interrupted at day 6 of the luteal phase by inducing luteolysis with a prostaglandin injection (PG). In a subgroup (n=7) of those given PG, the ovary not bearing the corpus luteum was removed at the time of injection. A further group (n=6) served as surgical controls. The interval to the next ovulation and...
Knott LE, Fonseca-Martinez BA, O'Connor AM, Goodrich LR, McIlwraith CW, Colbath AC.To evaluate the use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), autologous conditioned serum (ACS), platelet-rich plasma (PRP), and autologous protein solution (APS) for the treatment of equine musculoskeletal disease by diplomates of the American College of Veterinary Surgery (ACVS), and American College of Veterinary Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation (ACVSMR). Methods: Cross-sectional study. Methods: Diplomates (n = 423). Methods: An email link was sent to ACVS and ACVMR diplomates. A survey contained 59 questions regarding demographics, as well as indications, frequency, adverse effects, and limit...
Smith KC, Whitwell KE, Mumford JA, Hannant D, Blunden AS, Tearle JP.The V592 strain of equid herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1), which was originally isolated from a fetus during an abortion epizootic, has proved to be of low virulence in infection studies. Five Welsh Mountain pony mares and one foal were challenged intranasally or by aerosol with this isolate, and monitored clinically and virologically. All six animals shed virus in nasopharyngeal mucus, and viraemia was recorded from day 7 post-infection (PI). Pathological investigations revealed mild rhinitis and bronchiolitis in the mares, with viral antigen expression in degenerating epithelial cells of the nasal muco...
Güvenc K, Reilas T, Katila T.It is unclear whether AI of mares deep into the uterine horn causes more or less inflammation of the endometrium than conventional AI. Thus, we compared uterine inflammatory reactions of mares inseminated with two different doses of frozen-thawed semen into the tip of the uterine horn (UH) ipsilateral to the preovulatory follicle with those of mares inseminated into the uterine body (UB). Thirty-two mares were assigned to one of four groups (eight mares/group): UB20=AI into UB, 20 x 10(6)sperm/0.5 mL; UB200=AI into UB, 200 x 10(6)sperm/0.5 mL; UH20=AI into UH, 20 x 10(6)sperm/0.5 mL; UH200=AI ...
Pyörälä S, Taponen J, Katila T.Use of antimicrobials for veterinary indications related to reproduction in cattle and horses is reviewed. Antimicrobial compounds are widely used to treat and prevent infections of reproductive organs. Total amounts of antimicrobials for such purposes, estimated by weight, are low compared with major uses in food animals. The most common reproduction-related indication in cattle is mastitis. The number of intramammary products available for treatment of mastitis in the European Union is high. Metritis and endometritis also require antimicrobial treatment of cattle and specific products for in...
Sahmi F, Nicola E, Price CA.The objective was to establish a cell line-based bioassay for FSH in horse serum for screening samples with high eCG bioactivity. A cell line (HEK293) was transiently cotransfected with an FSH reporter expression plasmid and a cAMP-responsive β-galactosidase reporter plasmid. Cells were bulk frozen, and thawed for assay purposes. This assay was specific for FSH, with no cross-reaction with LH or insulin-like growth factor-1. Standard curves (eCG) and serum samples from pregnant mares passed parallel line bioassay validity tests (linearity and parallelism). Estimates of bioactivity with this b...
Gronwall R.Endogenous creatinine clearance and renal excretion of phenylbutazone, osmotically active material, and compounds contributing to the urinary refractive index were studied in 12 Thoroughbred mares after no treatment, after water administration, or after furosemide administration. Urine was quantitatively collected, using urinary bladder catheters. On average, urine flow of the mares was 9 microliters/min/kg without treatment and increased to about 50 microliters/min/kg after water administration and to about 70 microliters/min/kg after furosemide administration. Water administration increased ...
Nielsen MK, Littman BA, Orzech SW, Ripley NE.Equine cyathostomins are ubiquitous in grazing horses around the world and a main target in parasite control programs. Anthelmintic resistance has been reported with increasing frequency in these parasites over the past decades, and recent findings of fulminant resistance to the macrocyclic lactone class have raised severe concerns. This study aimed to evaluate ivermectin efficacy in cohorts of yearlings and mares present on four different farms in Central Kentucky. Strongylid egg counts were determined with an automated egg counting system, and the percent fecal egg count reduction (FECR) was...
Timoney PJ, Dillon PB, Geraghty VP, McArdle JF.Aspects of experimental transmission of the causal bacterium of contagious equine metritis (CEM) to albino Swiss mice were investigated. Whereas infection was established in the majority of female mice, the organism was recovered from only a limited number of male mice after challenge. No clinical evidence of infection was observed in the experimental mice. There was only one instance of presumptive venereal transmission of the CEM bacterium. One third of infected females conceived and had normal litters.
Shand N, Irvine CH, Turner JE, Alexander SL.Jugular blood samples were collected at 4 h intervals from six mares during an oestrous cycle to study the hormonal events that occur around the time of luteolysis. Blood samples from day 10 (day 0 = ovulation) until day 3 of oestrus were assayed for prostaglandin metabolite 13,14-dihydro-15-keto PGF2alpha (PGFM), oxytocin, prolactin, progesterone and oestrogen conjugates. PGF2alpha (0.5 or 1.5 mg) was administered to six mid-dioestrous mares and the oxytocin and prolactin responses were measured. One to five large (peak > or =2 x nadir) pulses of PGFM, oxytocin and prolactin were detected ...
Murray MJ, Eichorn ES.To determine the effect of decreasing gastric acidity in a feed-deprivation protocol on induction of gastric ulcers, and to determine whether stall confinement may be a factor contributing to gastric ulceration in horses. Methods: 8 adult horses, 4 geldings and 4 mares, 3 to 8 years old, and 7 adult horses, 5 geldings and 2 mares, 4 to 11 years old. Methods: Gastric ulceration was induced in horses by alternating 24-hour periods of feed deprivation and ad libitum access to hay, for a total of 96 hours' feed deprivation. This protocol was repeated with the horses receiving the histamine type-2 ...
Westendorf J, Wobeser B, Epp T.Inter- and intra-rater variability negatively affects the reliability of various histopathology grading scales used as prognostic aids in human and veterinary medicine. The Kenney-Doig categorization (grading) scale, which is used to associate equine endometrial histologic lesions with prognostic estimation of a broodmare's reproductive potential, has not been evaluated for inter- or intra-rater variability, to our knowledge. To assess whether the Kenney-Doig system produces reliable results among observers, 8 pathologists, all with American College of Veterinary Pathologists certification, we...
Woods GL, Steiner JV.The objective of this project was to produce multiple pregnant recipient mares during one year from each of four mares which were in athletic training and competition. Twenty-six embryos were recovered from the four mares in 38 collection attempts. Each embryo was surgically transferred to one of 20 recipient mares. Nine of 10 recipient mares which were transferred to on one occasion were detected pregnant at the one week post transfer pregnancy examination and six of eight mares which were transferred to on two occasions were detected pregnant at one of the one-week post transfer pregnancy ex...
