FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
PeerJ2018; 6; e4399; doi: 10.7717/peerj.4399

A simple method of equine limb force vector analysis and its potential applications.

Abstract: Ground reaction forces (GRF) measured during equine gait analysis are typically evaluated by analyzing discrete values obtained from continuous force-time data for the vertical, longitudinal and transverse GRF components. This paper describes a simple, temporo-spatial method of displaying and analyzing sagittal plane GRF vectors. In addition, the application of statistical parametric mapping (SPM) is introduced to analyse differences between contra-lateral fore and hindlimb force-time curves throughout the stance phase. The overall aim of the study was to demonstrate alternative methods of evaluating functional (a)symmetry within horses. Methods: GRF and kinematic data were collected from 10 horses trotting over a series of four force plates (120 Hz). The kinematic data were used to determine clean hoof contacts. The stance phase of each hoof was determined using a 50 N threshold. Vertical and longitudinal GRF for each stance phase were plotted both as force-time curves and as force vector diagrams in which vectors originating at the centre of pressure on the force plate were drawn at intervals of 8.3 ms for the duration of stance. Visual evaluation was facilitated by overlay of the vector diagrams for different limbs. Summary vectors representing the magnitude (VecMag) and direction (VecAng) of the mean force over the entire stance phase were superimposed on the force vector diagram. Typical measurements extracted from the force-time curves (peak forces, impulses) were compared with VecMag and VecAng using partial correlation (controlling for speed). Paired samples -tests (left v. right diagonal pair comparison and high v. low vertical force diagonal pair comparison) were performed on discrete and vector variables using traditional methods and Hotelling's tests on normalized stance phase data using SPM. Results: Evidence from traditional statistical tests suggested that VecMag is more influenced by the vertical force and impulse, whereas VecAng is more influenced by the longitudinal force and impulse. When used to evaluate mean data from the group of ten sound horses, SPM did not identify differences between the left and right contralateral limb pairs or between limb pairs classified according to directional asymmetry. When evaluating a single horse, three periods were identified during which differences in the forces between the left and right forelimbs exceeded the critical threshold ( < .01). Conclusions: Traditional statistical analysis of 2D GRF peak values, summary vector variables and visual evaluation of force vector diagrams gave harmonious results and both methods identified the same inter-limb asymmetries. As alpha was more tightly controlled using SPM, significance was only found in the individual horse although plots followed the same trends as discrete analysis for the group. Conclusions: The techniques of force vector analysis and SPM hold promise for investigations of sidedness and asymmetry in horses.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2018-02-21 PubMed ID: 29492341PubMed Central: PMC5827015DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4399Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research explores a simple method of evaluating the ground forces exerted by a horse’s limbs during motion, focusing on asymmetries that could signal health or performance issues. It also introduces the use of statistical parametric mapping to analyze the force-time curves of the stance phase.

Research Method

  • The research involved gathering ground reaction forces (GRF) and kinematic data from 10 horses trotting over a series of four force plates at 120 Hz. The data gathered were used to assess clean hoof contacts and determine the stance phase of each hoof, with a threshold of 50 N.
  • The vertical and longitudinal GRF for each stance phase were plotted as force-time curves and as force vector diagrams, with vectors drawn from the center of pressure on the force plate at 8.3 ms intervals.
  • To facilitate visual evaluation, vector diagrams for different limbs were overlaid. Summary vectors representing the magnitude and direction of the mean force during the entire stance phase were added onto the force vector diagram.
  • Typical measurements extracted from force-time curves were compared to vector magnitude and direction with partial correlation, controlling for speed.

Results

  • The analysis indicated that the magnitude of force vectors is more influenced by the vertical force and impulse, while the direction is more influenced by the longitudinal force and impulse.
  • Using statistical parametric mapping (SPM) to evaluate data from all ten horses did not show differences between left and right contralateral limb pairs or directional asymmetry.
  • However, when analyzing a single horse, three periods were found where differences in forces between left and right forelimbs exceeded the critical threshold.
  • Traditional statistical analysis of 2D GRF peak values, summary vector variables and visual evaluation of force vector diagrams gave consistent results, both methods identifying the same inter-limb asymmetries. Due to the stricter control of the alpha using SPM, significance was only found in the individual horse.

Conclusions

  • The research concluded that both force vector analysis and statistical parametric mapping (SPM) could be useful in studying asymmetries and sidedness in horses.
  • While traditional methods of evaluation, such as vector variables and visual force vector diagrams, provided consistent results with the new technique, the SPM method offered stricter control and identified significant differences in an individual horse, proving its effectiveness for individual analyses.

Cite This Article

APA
Hobbs SJ, Robinson MA, Clayton HM. (2018). A simple method of equine limb force vector analysis and its potential applications. PeerJ, 6, e4399. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4399

Publication

PeerJ
ISSN: 2167-8359
NlmUniqueID: 101603425
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 6
Pages: e4399
PII: e4399

Researcher Affiliations

Hobbs, Sarah Jane
  • Centre for Applied Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom.
Robinson, Mark A
  • Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
Clayton, Hilary M
  • Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States of America.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare there are no competing interests.

References

This article includes 48 references
  1. American Association of Equine Practitioners. Lameness exams: evaluating the lame horse.. 2017.
  2. Back W, MacAllister CG, Van Heel MCV, Pollmeier M, Hanson PD. Vertical frontlimb ground reaction forces of sound and lame warmbloods differ from those in Quarter Horses.. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 2007;27:123–129.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2007.01.007google scholar: lookup
  3. Berki V, Boswell MA, Ciltea D, Guseila LM, Goss L, Barnes S, Berme N, McMillan GR, Davis BL. Expanded butterfly plots: A new method to analyze simultaneous pressure and shear on the plantar skin surface during gait.. J Biomech 2015 Jul 16;48(10):2214-6.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2015.03.025pmc: PMC8226379pubmed: 25895644google scholar: lookup
  4. Bertram JE, Gutmann A. Motions of the running horse and cheetah revisited: fundamental mechanics of the transverse and rotary gallop.. J R Soc Interface 2009 Jun 6;6(35):549-59.
    doi: 10.1098/rsif.2008.0328pmc: PMC2696142pubmed: 18854295google scholar: lookup
  5. Bertram JE, Lee DV, Case HN, Todhunter RJ. Comparison of the trotting gaits of Labrador Retrievers and Greyhounds.. Am J Vet Res 2000 Jul;61(7):832-8.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2000.61.832pubmed: 10895909google scholar: lookup
  6. Bidwell LA, Brown KE, Cordier A, Mullineaux DR, Clayton HM. Mepivacaine local anaesthetic duration in equine palmar digital nerve blocks.. Equine Vet J 2004 Dec;36(8):723-6.
    pubmed: 15656504doi: 10.2746/0425164044848154google scholar: lookup
  7. Clayton HM, Hobbs SJ. An exploration of strategies used by dressage horses to control moments around the center of mass when performing passage.. PeerJ 2017;5:e3866.
    doi: 10.7717/peerj.3866pmc: PMC5623309pubmed: 28970972google scholar: lookup
  8. Clayton HM, Schamhardt HC, Hobbs SJ. Ground reaction forces of elite dressage horses in collected trot and passage.. Vet J 2017 Mar;221:30-33.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2017.01.016pubmed: 28283077google scholar: lookup
  9. Dow SM, Leendertz JA, Silver IA, Goodship AE. Identification of subclinical tendon injury from ground reaction force analysis.. Equine Vet J 1991 Jul;23(4):266-72.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1991.tb03715.xpubmed: 1915225google scholar: lookup
  10. Dutto DJ, Hoyt DF, Cogger EA, Wickler SJ. Ground reaction forces in horses trotting up an incline and on the level over a range of speeds.. J Exp Biol 2004 Sep;207(Pt 20):3507-14.
    doi: 10.1242/jeb.01171pubmed: 15339946google scholar: lookup
  11. Friston KJ, Ashburner JT, Kiebel SJ, Nichols TE, Penny WD. Statistical parametric mapping: the analysis of functional brain images.. London: Elsevier/Academic Press; 2007.
  12. Gustås P, Johnston C, Drevemo S. Ground reaction force and hoof deceleration patterns on two different surfaces at the trot.. Equine and Comparative Exercise Physiology 2006;3:209–216.
    doi: 10.1017/S147806150667607Xgoogle scholar: lookup
  13. Hobbs SJ, Bertram JE, Clayton HM. An exploration of the influence of diagonal dissociation and moderate changes in speed on locomotor parameters in trotting horses.. PeerJ 2016;4:e2190.
    doi: 10.7717/peerj.2190pmc: PMC4933092pubmed: 27413640google scholar: lookup
  14. Hobbs SJ, Clayton HM. Sagittal plane ground reaction forces, centre of pressure and centre of mass in trotting horses.. Vet J 2013 Dec;198 Suppl 1:e14-9.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.09.027pubmed: 24138935google scholar: lookup
  15. Ishihara A, Bertone AL, Rajala-Schultz PJ. Association between subjective lameness grade and kinetic gait parameters in horses with experimentally induced forelimb lameness.. Am J Vet Res 2005 Oct;66(10):1805-15.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2005.66.1805pubmed: 16273915google scholar: lookup
  16. Kambhampati SB. Constructing a Pedotti diagram using excel charts.. J Biomech 2007;40(16):3748-50.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2007.06.012pubmed: 17645882google scholar: lookup
  17. Keegan KG. Evidence-based lameness detection and quantification.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2007 Aug;23(2):403-23.
    pubmed: 17616320doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2007.04.008google scholar: lookup
  18. Keegan KG, Kramer J, Yonezawa Y, Maki H, Pai PF, Dent EV, Kellerman TE, Wilson DA, Reed SK. Assessment of repeatability of a wireless, inertial sensor-based lameness evaluation system for horses.. Am J Vet Res 2011 Sep;72(9):1156-63.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.72.9.1156pubmed: 21879972google scholar: lookup
  19. Khodadadeh S, Whittle MW, Bremble GR. Height of centre of body mass during osteoarthritic gait.. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 1986 May;1(2):77-80.
    doi: 10.1016/0268-0033(86)90079-3pubmed: 23906357google scholar: lookup
  20. Khumsap S, Clayton HM, Lanovaz JL. Effect of walking velocity on ground reaction force variables in the hind limb of clinically normal horses.. Am J Vet Res 2001 Jun;62(6):901-6.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2001.62.901pubmed: 11400848google scholar: lookup
  21. Khumsap S, Lanovaz JL, Rosenstein DS, Byron C, Clayton HM. Effect of induced unilateral synovitis of distal intertarsal and tarsometatarsal joints on sagittal plane kinematics and kinetics of trotting horses.. Am J Vet Res 2003 Dec;64(12):1491-5.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2003.64.1491pubmed: 14672426google scholar: lookup
  22. Lee DV, Bertram JE, Todhunter RJ. Acceleration and balance in trotting dogs.. J Exp Biol 1999 Dec;202(Pt 24):3565-73.
    pubmed: 10574733doi: 10.1242/jeb.202.24.3565google scholar: lookup
  23. Marasović T, Cecić M, Zanchi V. Analysis and interpretation of ground reaction forces in normal gait.. WSEAS Transactions on Systems 2009;8:1105–1114.
  24. McLaughlin RM Jr, Gaughan EM, Roush JK, Skaggs CL. Effects of subject velocity on ground reaction force measurements and stance times in clinically normal horses at the walk and trot.. Am J Vet Res 1996 Jan;57(1):7-11.
    pubmed: 8720231
  25. Merkens HW, Schamhardt HC. Evaluation of equine locomotion during different degrees of experimentally induced lameness. I: Lameness model and quantification of ground reaction force patterns of the limbs.. Equine Vet J Suppl 1988 Sep;(6):99-106.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1988.tb01468.xpubmed: 9079070google scholar: lookup
  26. Merkens HW, Schamhardt HC. Relationships between ground reaction force patterns and kinematics in the walking and trotting horse.. Equine Veterinary Journal 1994;26(Suppl 17):67–70.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1994.tb04334.xpubmed: 0google scholar: lookup
  27. Merkens HW, Schamhardt HC, Hartman W, Kersjes AW. Ground reaction force patterns of Dutch Warmblood horses at normal walk.. Equine Vet J 1986 May;18(3):207-14.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1986.tb03600.xpubmed: 3732241google scholar: lookup
  28. Merkens HW, Schamhardt HC, Hartman W, Kersjes AW. The use of H(orse) INDEX: a method of analysing the ground reaction force patterns of lame and normal gaited horses at the walk.. Equine Vet J 1988 Jan;20(1):29-36.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1988.tb01448.xpubmed: 3366102google scholar: lookup
  29. Merkens HW, Schamhardt HC, Van Osch GJ, Van den Bogert AJ. Ground reaction force patterns of Dutch warmblood horses at normal trot.. Equine Vet J 1993 Mar;25(2):134-7.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1993.tb02923.xpubmed: 8467772google scholar: lookup
  30. Merkens HW, Schamhardt HC, van Osch GJ, Hartman W. Ground reaction force patterns of Dutch Warmbloods at the canter.. Am J Vet Res 1993 May;54(5):670-4.
    pubmed: 8317757
  31. Nauwelaerts S, Hobbs SJ, Back W. A horse's locomotor signature: COP path determined by the individual limb.. PLoS One 2017;12(2):e0167477.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0167477pmc: PMC5308775pubmed: 28196073google scholar: lookup
  32. Pataky TC. One-dimensional statistical parametric mapping in Python.. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin 2012;15(3):295-301.
    doi: 10.1080/10255842.2010.527837pubmed: 21756121google scholar: lookup
  33. Pataky TC, Robinson MA, Vanrenterghem J. Vector field statistical analysis of kinematic and force trajectories.. J Biomech 2013 Sep 27;46(14):2394-401.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2013.07.031pubmed: 23948374google scholar: lookup
  34. Pataky TC, Vanrenterghem J, Robinson MA. The probability of false positives in zero-dimensional analyses of one-dimensional kinematic, force and EMG trajectories.. J Biomech 2016 Jun 14;49(9):1468-1476.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2016.03.032pubmed: 27067363google scholar: lookup
  35. Pearce GP, May-Davis S, Greaves D. Femoral asymmetry in the Thoroughbred racehorse.. Aust Vet J 2005 Jun;83(6):367-70.
    pubmed: 15986917doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2005.tb15636.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  36. Pedotti A. Simple equipment used in clinical practice for evaluation of locomotion.. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1977 Sep;24(5):456-61.
    pubmed: 892841doi: 10.1109/tbme.1977.326186google scholar: lookup
  37. Riemersma DJ, van den Bogert AJ, Jansen MO, Schamhardt HC. Influence of shoeing on ground reaction forces and tendon strains in the forelimbs of ponies.. Equine Vet J 1996 Mar;28(2):126-32.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1996.tb01604.xpubmed: 8706644google scholar: lookup
  38. Sainburg RL. Convergent models of handedness and brain lateralization.. Front Psychol 2014;5:1092.
    doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01092pmc: PMC4189332pubmed: 25339923google scholar: lookup
  39. Starke SD, Raistrick KJ, May SA, Pfau T. The effect of trotting speed on the evaluation of subtle lameness in horses.. Vet J 2013 Aug;197(2):245-52.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.03.006pubmed: 23611486google scholar: lookup
  40. Stubbs NC, Riggs CM, Hodges PW, Jeffcott LB, Hodgson DR, Clayton HM, McGowan CM. Osseous spinal pathology and epaxial muscle ultrasonography in Thoroughbred racehorses.. Equine Vet J Suppl 2010 Nov;(38):654-61.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00258.xpubmed: 21059076google scholar: lookup
  41. van Heel MC, Kroekenstoel AM, van Dierendonck MC, van Weeren PR, Back W. Uneven feet in a foal may develop as a consequence of lateral grazing behaviour induced by conformational traits.. Equine Vet J 2006 Nov;38(7):646-51.
    doi: 10.2746/042516406X159070pubmed: 17228580google scholar: lookup
  42. Weishaupt MA. Adaptation strategies of horses with lameness.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2008 Apr;24(1):79-100.
    pubmed: 18314037doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2007.11.010google scholar: lookup
  43. Weishaupt MA, Byström A, von Peinen K, Wiestner T, Meyers H, Waldern N, Johnston C, van Weeren R, Roepstorff L. Kinetics and kinematics of the passage.. Equine Vet J 2009 Mar;41(3):263-7.
    doi: 10.2746/042516409X397226pubmed: 19469233google scholar: lookup
  44. Weishaupt MA, Wiestner T, Hogg HP, Jordan P, Auer JA. Vertical ground reaction force-time histories of sound Warmblood horses trotting on a treadmill.. Vet J 2004 Nov;168(3):304-11.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2003.08.007pubmed: 15501148google scholar: lookup
  45. Weishaupt MA, Wiestner T, Hogg HP, Jordan P, Auer JA. Compensatory load redistribution of horses with induced weightbearing hindlimb lameness trotting on a treadmill.. Equine Vet J 2004 Dec;36(8):727-33.
    pubmed: 15656505doi: 10.2746/0425164044848244google scholar: lookup
  46. Weishaupt MA, Wiestner T, Hogg HP, Jordan P, Auer JA. Compensatory load redistribution of horses with induced weight-bearing forelimb lameness trotting on a treadmill.. Vet J 2006 Jan;171(1):135-46.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2004.09.004pubmed: 15974567google scholar: lookup
  47. Wiggers N, Nauwelaerts SL, Hobbs SJ, Bool S, Wolschrijn CF, Back W. Functional locomotor consequences of uneven forefeet for trot symmetry in individual riding horses.. PLoS One 2015;10(2):e0114836.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0114836pmc: PMC4315574pubmed: 25646752google scholar: lookup
  48. Williams GE, Silverman BW, Wilson AM, Goodship AE. Disease-specific changes in equine ground reaction force data documented by use of principal component analysis.. Am J Vet Res 1999 May;60(5):549-55.
    pubmed: 10328423

Citations

This article has been cited 11 times.
  1. St George LB, Spoormakers TJP, Smit IH, Hobbs SJ, Clayton HM, Roy SH, van Weeren PR, Richards J, Serra Bragança FM. Adaptations in equine appendicular muscle activity and movement occur during induced fore- and hindlimb lameness: An electromyographic and kinematic evaluation. Front Vet Sci 2022;9:989522.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.989522pubmed: 36425119google scholar: lookup
  2. Smit IH, Hernlund E, Brommer H, van Weeren PR, Rhodin M, Serra Bragança FM. Continuous versus discrete data analysis for gait evaluation of horses with induced bilateral hindlimb lameness. Equine Vet J 2022 May;54(3):626-633.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.13451pubmed: 34085312google scholar: lookup
  3. Clayton HM, Hobbs SJ. Ground Reaction Forces of Dressage Horses Performing the Piaffe. Animals (Basel) 2021 Feb 8;11(2).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11020436pubmed: 33567549google scholar: lookup
  4. St George L, Clayton HM, Sinclair J, Richards J, Roy SH, Hobbs SJ. Muscle Function and Kinematics during Submaximal Equine Jumping: What Can Objective Outcomes Tell Us about Athletic Performance Indicators?. Animals (Basel) 2021 Feb 5;11(2).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11020414pubmed: 33562875google scholar: lookup
  5. Papageorgiou E, Simon-Martinez C, Molenaers G, Ortibus E, Van Campenhout A, Desloovere K. Are spasticity, weakness, selectivity, and passive range of motion related to gait deviations in children with spastic cerebral palsy? A statistical parametric mapping study. PLoS One 2019;14(10):e0223363.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0223363pubmed: 31603897google scholar: lookup
  6. Hobbs SJ, Clayton HM. Collisional mechanics of the diagonal gaits of horses over a range of speeds. PeerJ 2019;7:e7689.
    doi: 10.7717/peerj.7689pubmed: 31576241google scholar: lookup
  7. Hobbs SJ, Nauwelaerts S, Sinclair J, Clayton HM, Back W. Sagittal plane fore hoof unevenness is associated with fore and hindlimb asymmetrical force vectors in the sagittal and frontal planes. PLoS One 2018;13(8):e0203134.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203134pubmed: 30157249google scholar: lookup
  8. St George L, Nankervis K, Walker V, Maddock C, Robinson A, Sinclair J, Hobbs SJ. A Feasibility Study to Determine Whether Neuromuscular Adaptations to Equine Water Treadmill Exercise Can Be Detected Using Synchronous Surface Electromyography and Kinematic Data. Animals (Basel) 2025 Nov 1;15(21).
    doi: 10.3390/ani15213189pubmed: 41227519google scholar: lookup
  9. Wolff C, Warmerdam E, Dahmen T, Pohlemann T, Slusallek P, Ganse B. New Parameters Based on Ground Reaction Forces for Monitoring Rehabilitation Following Tibial Fractures and Assessment of Heavily Altered Gait. Sensors (Basel) 2025 Apr 15;25(8).
    doi: 10.3390/s25082475pubmed: 40285165google scholar: lookup
  10. Aoun R, Ogunmola Z, Musso A, Taguchi T, Takawira C, Lopez MJ. Shoe configuration effects on equine forelimb gait kinetics at a walk. PeerJ 2025;13:e18940.
    doi: 10.7717/peerj.18940pubmed: 40028219google scholar: lookup
  11. Byström A, Hardeman AM, Engell MT, Swagemakers JH, Koene MHW, Serra-Bragança FM, Rhodin M, Hernlund E. Normal variation in pelvic roll motion pattern during straight-line trot in hand in warmblood horses. Sci Rep 2023 Oct 10;13(1):17117.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-44223-2pubmed: 37816848google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 100,129 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.