FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Animals (Basel) / Advances in the Diagnosis of Equine Respiratory Diseases: A ...
Animals : an open access journal from MDPI2022; 12(3); doi: 10.3390/ani12030381

Advances in the Diagnosis of Equine Respiratory Diseases: A Review of Novel Imaging and Functional Techniques.

Abstract: The horse, as a flight animal with a survival strategy involving rapid escape from predators, is a natural-born athlete with enormous functional plasticity of the respiratory system. Any respiratory dysfunction can cause a decline in ventilation and gas exchange. Therefore, respiratory diseases often lead to exercise intolerance and poor performance. This is one of the most frequent problems encountered by equine internists. Routine techniques used to evaluate respiratory tract diseases include clinical examination, endoscopic examination, radiographic and ultrasonographic imaging, cytological evaluation, and bacterial culture of respiratory secretions. New diagnostic challenges and the growing development of equine medicine has led to the implementation of advanced diagnostic techniques successfully used in human medicine. Among them, the use of computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging significantly broadened the possibilities of anatomical imaging, especially in the diagnosis of upper respiratory tract diseases. Moreover, the implementation of spirometry, electrical impedance tomography (EIT), and impulse oscillation system (IOS) sheds new light on functional diagnostics of respiratory tract diseases, especially those affecting the lower part. Therefore, this review aimed to familiarize the clinicians with the advantages and disadvantages of the advanced diagnostic techniques of the equine respiratory tract and introduce their recent clinical applications in equine medicine.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2022-02-04 PubMed ID: 35158704PubMed Central: PMC8833607DOI: 10.3390/ani12030381Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research explores new diagnostic techniques used in equine medicine for detecting respiratory diseases in horses. The methods have been previously successful in human medicine and are now being adapted to veterinary medicine for better diagnosis.

Background

  • Horses, due to their natural role as prey and inherently tremendous athletic ability, have a highly developed respiratory system. However, any dysfunction in this system can lead to decreased breathing and gas exchange, leading to poor performance and lowered exercise tolerance.
  • For equine internists, these respiratory issues are among the most commonly encountered challenges.
  • Traditionally, diagnosis involves clinical examinations, endoscopic examinations, imaging through radiography and ultrasonography, cytological evaluations, and bacterial culture studies of respiratory secretions.

New Diagnostic Techniques

  • With the advancement of equine medicine, newer diagnostic techniques are being adopted from human medicine. These techniques offer improved detection and diagnosis of diseases, especially in the upper respiratory tract.
  • Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance (MR) imaging are being used to provide more detailed anatomical images and to diagnose upper respiratory tract diseases.
  • Additionally, spirometry, Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT), and Impulse Oscillation System (IOS) are being used to diagnose and understand respiratory tract diseases, particularly those that affect the lower respiratory tract.

Aim of the Review

  • This review has been compiled to familiarize clinicians with these newer diagnostic techniques, their advantages and disadvantages, and their recent clinical applications in equine meicine.
  • Understanding these methods will likely improve diagnostic accuracy, enabling veterinarians to provide optimal and timely treatment for horses suffering from respiratory diseases.

Cite This Article

APA
Kozłowska N, Wierzbicka M, Jasiński T, Domino M. (2022). Advances in the Diagnosis of Equine Respiratory Diseases: A Review of Novel Imaging and Functional Techniques. Animals (Basel), 12(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12030381

Publication

Animals : an open access journal from MDPI
ISSN: 2076-2615
NlmUniqueID: 101635614
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 12
Issue: 3

Researcher Affiliations

Kozłowska, Natalia
  • Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland.
Wierzbicka, Małgorzata
  • Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland.
Jasiński, Tomasz
  • Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland.
Domino, Małgorzata
  • Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

This article includes 106 references
  1. Roy M.-F., Lavoie J.-P.. Tools for the Diagnosis of Equine Respiratory Disorders. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 2003;19:1–17.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(02)00063-9pubmed: 12747658google scholar: lookup
  2. Savage C.J.. Evaluation of the Equine Respiratory System Using Physical Examination and Endoscopy. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 1997;13:443–462.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30223-7pubmed: 9368972google scholar: lookup
  3. Marr C.. Thoracic Ultrasonography. Equine Vet. Educ. 1993;5:41–46.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.1993.tb00990.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  4. Barrett M., Park R.. Review of Radiographic Technique and Interpretation of the Equine Skull. AAEP Proc. 2011;57:431–437.
  5. Gibbs C., Lane J.G.. Radiographic Examination of the Facial, Nasal and Paranasal Sinus Regions of the Horse. II. Radiological Findings. Equine Vet. J. 1987;19:474–482.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1987.tb02648.xpubmed: 3678193google scholar: lookup
  6. Koblinger K., Nicol J., McDonald K., Wasko A., Logie N., Weiss M., Léguillette R.. Endoscopic Assessment of Airway Inflammation in Horses. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2011;25:1118–1126.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2011.00788.xpubmed: 21985142google scholar: lookup
  7. Barakzai S.Z., Dixon P.M.. Correlation of Resting and Exercising Endoscopic Findings for Horses with Dynamic Laryngeal Collapse and Palatal Dysfunction. Equine Vet. J. 2011;43:18–23.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00108.xpubmed: 21143629google scholar: lookup
  8. Kraft S.L., Gavin P.. Physical Principles and Technical Considerations for Equine Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 2001;17:115–130.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30078-0pubmed: 11488039google scholar: lookup
  9. Kutasi O., Balogh N., Lajos Z., Nagy K., Szenci O.. Diagnostic Approaches for the Assessment of Equine Chronic Pulmonary Disorders. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2011;31:400–410.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2011.03.018google scholar: lookup
  10. Lo Feudo C.M., Stucchi L., Alberti E., Stancari G., Conturba B., Zucca E., Ferrucci F.. The Role of Thoracic Ultrasonography and Airway Endoscopy in the Diagnosis of Equine Asthma and Exercise-Induced Pulmonary Hemorrhage. Vet. Sci. 2021;8:276.
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci8110276pmc: PMC8619806pubmed: 34822649google scholar: lookup
  11. Reef V.B., Whittier M., Allam L.G.. Thoracic Ultrasonography. Clin. Tech. Equine Pract. 2004;3:284–293.
    doi: 10.1053/j.ctep.2005.02.006google scholar: lookup
  12. Raphel C.F.. Endoscopic Findings in the Upper Respiratory Tract of 479 Horses. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1982;181:470–473.
    pubmed: 6982261
  13. Hardy J., Léveillé R.. Diseases of the Guttural Pouches. Vet. Clin. Equine Pract. 2003;19:123–158.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(02)00070-6pubmed: 12747665google scholar: lookup
  14. Couëtil L.L., Gallatin L.L., Blevins W., Khadra I.. Treatment of Tracheal Collapse with an Intraluminal Stent in a Miniature Horse. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2004;225:1727–1732.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2004.225.1727pubmed: 15626224google scholar: lookup
  15. Couetil L., Cardwell J.M., Leguillette R., Mazan M., Richard E., Bienzle D., Bullone M., Gerber V., Ivester K., Lavoie J.-P.. Equine Asthma: Current Understanding and Future Directions. Front. Vet. Sci. 2020;7:450.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00450pmc: PMC7438831pubmed: 32903600google scholar: lookup
  16. Perkins G.A., Viel L., Wagner B., Hoffman A., Erb H.N., Ainsworth D.M.. Histamine Bronchoprovocation Does Not Affect Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid Cytology, Gene Expression and Protein Concentrations of IL-4, IL-8 and IFN-Gamma. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 2008;126:230–235.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2008.07.006pubmed: 18829118google scholar: lookup
  17. Hathcock J.T., Stickle R.L.. Principles and Concepts of Computed Tomography. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Small Anim. Pract. 1993;23:399–415.
    doi: 10.1016/S0195-5616(93)50034-7pubmed: 8465497google scholar: lookup
  18. Dakin S.G., Lam R., Rees E., Mumby C., West C., Weller R.. Technical Set-up and Radiation Exposure for Standing Computed Tomography of the Equine Head: Standing CT of the Equine Head. Equine Vet. Educ. 2014;26:208–215.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12127google scholar: lookup
  19. Tucker R.L., Farrell E.. Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Equine Head. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 2001;17:131–144.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30079-2pubmed: 11488040google scholar: lookup
  20. Schliewert E.-C., Lascola K.M., O’Brien R.T., Clark-Price S.C., Wilkins P.A., Foreman J.H., Mitchell M.A., Hartman S.K., Kline K.H.. Comparison of Radiographic and Computed Tomographic Images of the Lungs in Healthy Neonatal Foals. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2015;76:42–52.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.76.1.42pubmed: 25535660google scholar: lookup
  21. Farrow C.S.. The Equine Skull: Dealing Successfully with Radiographic Complexity. 2006. pp. 329–332. Chapter 18.
  22. Crijns C.P., Baeumlin Y., De Rycke L., Broeckx B.J.G., Vlaminck L., Bergman E.H.J., van Bree H., Gielen I.. Intra-Arterial versus Intra Venous Contrast-Enhanced Computed Tomography of the Equine Head. BMC Vet. Res. 2016;12:6.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-016-0632-9pmc: PMC4704255pubmed: 26739315google scholar: lookup
  23. Barbee D.D., Allen J.R., Gavin P.R.. Computed tomography in horses: Technique. Vet. Radiol. 1987;28:144–151.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.1987.tb00043.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  24. Solano M., Brawer R.S.. CT of the Equine Head: Technical Considerations, Anatomical Guide, and Selected Diseases. Clin. Tech. Equine Pract. 2004;3:374–388.
    doi: 10.1053/j.ctep.2005.02.016google scholar: lookup
  25. Esmaeili F., Johari M., Haddadi P., Vatankhah M.. Beam Hardening Artifacts: Comparison between Two Cone Beam Computed Tomography Scanners. J. Dent. Res. Dent. Clin. Dent. Prospect. 2012;6:49–53.
    doi: 10.5681/joddd.2012.011pmc: PMC3445314pubmed: 22991636google scholar: lookup
  26. Witte T.H., Perkins J.D.. Early Diagnosis May Hold the Key to the Successful Treatment of Nasal and Paranasal Sinus Neoplasia in the Horse. Equine Vet. Educ. 2011;23:441–447.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2011.00251.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  27. Zakia L., Shaw S., Bonomelli N., O’Sullivan S., Zur Linden A., Dubois M., Baird J., Guest B.. Hematuria in a 3-Month-Old Filly with an Internal Umbilical Abscess and Internal Iliac Artery Aneurysm. Can. Vet. J. 2021;62:877–881.
    pmc: PMC8281942pubmed: 34341604
  28. Strohmayer C., Klang A., Kneissl S.. Computed Tomographic and Histopathological Characteristics of 13 Equine and 10 Feline Oral and Sinonasal Squamous Cell Carcinomas. Front. Vet. Sci. 2020;7:591437.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.591437pmc: PMC7719637pubmed: 33330718google scholar: lookup
  29. Cilliers I., Williams J., Carstens A., Duncan N.M.. Three Cases of Osteoma and an Osseous Fibroma of the Paranasal Sinuses of Horses in South Africa: Clinical Communication. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 2008;79:185–193.
    doi: 10.4102/jsava.v79i4.271pubmed: 19496319google scholar: lookup
  30. De Zani D., Zani D.D., Borgonovo S., Di Giancamillo M., Rondena M., Verschooten F.. An Undifferentiated Sarcoma in the Cervical Region in a Horse: Undifferentiated Cervical Sarcoma in a Horse. Equine Vet. Educ. 2011;23:138–141.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2010.00202.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  31. Cissell D.D., Wisner E.R., Textor J., Mohr F.C., Scrivani P.V., Théon A.P.. Computed Tomographic Appearance of Equine Sinonasal Neoplasia. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 2012;53:245–251.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2011.01913.xpubmed: 22211373google scholar: lookup
  32. Henninger W., Mairi Frame E., Willmann M., Simhofer H., Malleczek D., Kneissl S.M., Mayrhofer E.. CT Features of alveolitis and sinusitis in horses. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 2003;44:269–276.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2003.tb00454.xpubmed: 12816367google scholar: lookup
  33. Fenner M.F., Verwilghen D., Townsend N., Simhofer H., Schwarzer J., Zani D.D., Bienert-Zeit A.. Paranasal Sinus Cysts in the Horse: Complications Related to Their Presence and Surgical Treatment in 37 Cases. Equine Vet. J. 2019;51:57–63.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12959pubmed: 29679404google scholar: lookup
  34. Annear M.J., Gemensky-Metzler A.J., Elce Y.A., Stone S.G.. Exophthalmus Secondary to a Sinonasal Cyst in a Horse. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2008;15:233–285.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.233.2.285pubmed: 18627235google scholar: lookup
  35. Ostrowska J., Lindström L., Tóth T., Hansson K., Uhlhorn M., Ley C.J.. Computed Tomography Characteristics of Equine Paranasal Sinus Cysts. Equine Vet. J. 2020;52:538–546.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.13212pubmed: 31793020google scholar: lookup
  36. Hilton H., Puchalski S.M., Aleman M.. The Computed Tomographic Appearance of Equine Temporohyoid Osteoarthropathy. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 2009;50:151–156.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2009.01508.xpubmed: 19400460google scholar: lookup
  37. Divers T.J., Ducharme N.G., de Lahunta A., Irby N.L., Scrivani P.V.. Temporohyoid Osteoarthropathy. Clin. Tech. Equine Pract. 2006;5:17–23.
    doi: 10.1053/j.ctep.2006.01.004google scholar: lookup
  38. Bras J.J., Davis E., Beard W.L.. Bilateral Ceratohyoidectomy for the Resolution of Clinical Signs Associated with Temporohyoid Osteoarthropathy. Equine Vet. Educ. 2014;26:116–120.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2012.00426.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  39. Kowalczyk L., Boehler A., Brunthaler R., Rathmanner M., Rijkenhuizen A.B.M.. Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Paranasal Sinuses in Two Horses. Equine Vet. Educ. 2011;23:435–440.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2010.00141.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  40. Dixon P.M., Barnett T.P., Morgan R.E., Reardon R.J.M.. Computed Tomographic Assessment of Individual Paranasal Sinus Compartment and Nasal Conchal Bulla Involvement in 300 Cases of Equine Sinonasal Disease. Front. Vet. Sci. 2020;7:797.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.580356pmc: PMC7652901pubmed: 33195594google scholar: lookup
  41. Sogaro-Robinson C., Lacombe V.A., Reed S.M., Balkrishnan R.. Factors Predictive of Abnormal Results for Computed Tomography of the Head in Horses Affected by Neurologic Disorders: 57 Cases (2001–2007). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2009;235:176–183.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.235.2.176pubmed: 19601739google scholar: lookup
  42. Manso-Díaz G., García-López J.M., Maranda L., Taeymans O.. The Role of Head Computed Tomography in Equine Practice. Equine Vet. Educ. 2015;27:136–145.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12275google scholar: lookup
  43. Garrett K.S., Woodie J.B., Cook J.L., Williams N.M.. Imaging Diagnosis—Nasal Septal and Laryngeal Cyst-like Malformationsin a Thoroughbred Weanling Colt Diagnosed Using Ultrasonography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound Off. J. Am. Coll. Vet. Radiol. Int. Vet. Radiol. Assoc. 2010;51:504–507.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2010.01703.xpubmed: 20973382google scholar: lookup
  44. Murray R.C.. Equine MRI. 2010. pp. 249–267.
  45. Fitz J., Gerhards H.. Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Thorax and Abdomen in Foals. Pferdeheilkunde 2005;21:115–123.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20050202google scholar: lookup
  46. Gutierrez-Nibeyro S.D., Werpy N.M., Gold S.J., Olguin S., Schaeffer D.J.. Standing MRI Lesions of the Distal Interphalangeal Joint and Podotrochlear Apparatus Occur with a High Frequency in Warmblood Horses. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 2020;61:336–345.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12855pubmed: 32162431google scholar: lookup
  47. Werpy N.M.. Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Equine Patient: A Comparison of High- and Low-Field Systems. Clin. Tech. Equine Pract. 2007;6:37–45.
    doi: 10.1053/j.ctep.2006.11.004google scholar: lookup
  48. Hatabu H., Ohno Y., Gefter W.B., Parraga G., Madore B., Lee K.S., Altes T.A., Lynch D.A., Mayo J.R., Seo J.B.. Expanding Applications of Pulmonary MRI in the Clinical Evaluation of Lung Disorders: Fleischner Society Position Paper. Radiology 2020;297:286–301.
    doi: 10.1148/radiol.2020201138pubmed: 32870136google scholar: lookup
  49. Zani D.D., Rabbogliatti V., Ravasio G., Pettinato C., Giancamillo M.D., Zani D.D.. Contrast Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Foot in Horses Using Intravenous versus Regional Intraarterial Injection of Gadolinium. Open Vet. J. 2018;8:471–478.
    doi: 10.4314/ovj.v8i4.19pmc: PMC6356101pubmed: 30775287google scholar: lookup
  50. Waselau M., McKnight A., Kasparek A.. Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Equine Stifles: Technique and Observations in 76 Clinical Cases. Equine Vet. Educ. 2020;32:85–91.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.13248google scholar: lookup
  51. Barrett M.F., Selberg K.T., Johnson S.A., Hersman J., Frisbie D.D.. High Field Magnetic Resonance Imaging Contributes to Diagnosis of Equine Distal Tarsus and Proximal Metatarsus Lesions: 103 Horses. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 2018;59:587–596.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12659pubmed: 30027637google scholar: lookup
  52. Ferrell E.A., Gavin P.R., Tucker R.L., Sellon D.C., Hikes M.T.. Magnetic Resonance for Evaluation of Neurologic Disease in 12 Horses. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 2002;43:510–516.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2002.tb01041.xpubmed: 12502103google scholar: lookup
  53. Spoormakers T.J.P., Ensink J.M., Goehring L.S., Koeman J.P., Braake F.T., van der Vlugt-Meijer R.H., van der Belt A.J.M.. Brain Abscesses as a Metastatic Manifestation of Strangles: Symptomatology and the Use of Magnetic Resonance Imaging as a Diagnostic Aid. Equine Vet. J. 2010;35:146–151.
    doi: 10.2746/042516403776114153pubmed: 12638790google scholar: lookup
  54. Tessier C., Brühschwein A., Lang J., Konar M., Wilke M., Brehm W., Kircher P.. Magnetic Resonance Imaging Features of Sinonasal Disorders in Horses. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 2013;54:54–60.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2012.01975.xpubmed: 22994147google scholar: lookup
  55. Garrett K.S., Woodie J.B., Embertson R.M., Pease A.P.. Diagnosis of Laryngeal Dysplasia in Five Horses Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Ultrasonography. Equine Vet. J. 2009;41:766–771.
    doi: 10.2746/042516409X434080pubmed: 20095224google scholar: lookup
  56. Garrett K.S.. Advances in Diagnostic Imaging of the Larynx and Pharynx. Equine Vet. Educ. 2012;24:17–18.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2011.00269.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  57. Rieger C., Herzog P., Eibel R., Fiegl M., Ostermann H.. Pulmonary MRI--a New Approach for the Evaluation of Febrile Neutropenic Patients with Malignancies. Support. Care Cancer. 2008;16:599–606.
    doi: 10.1007/s00520-007-0346-4pubmed: 17943326google scholar: lookup
  58. Syrjala H., Broas M., Ohtonen P., Jartti A., Pääkkö E.. Chest Magnetic Resonance Imaging for Pneumonia Diagnosis in Outpatients with Lower Respiratory Tract Infection. Eur. Respir. J. 2017;49:1601303.
    doi: 10.1183/13993003.01303-2016pubmed: 27811069google scholar: lookup
  59. Eibel R., Herzog P., Dietrich O., Rieger C.T., Ostermann H., Reiser M.F., Schoenberg S.O.. Pulmonary Abnormalities in Immunocompromised Patients: Comparative Detection with Parallel Acquisition MR Imaging and Thin-Section Helical CT. Radiology 2006;241:880–891.
    doi: 10.1148/radiol.2413042056pubmed: 17032908google scholar: lookup
  60. Couetil L.L., Rosenthal F.S., DeNicola D.B., Chilcoat C.D.. Clinical Signs, Evaluation of Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid, and Assessment of Pulmonary Function in Horses with Inflammatory Respiratory Disease. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2001;62:538–546.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2001.62.538pubmed: 11327461google scholar: lookup
  61. Butler P.J., Woakes A.J., Smale K., Roberts C.A., Hillidge C.J., Snow D.H., Marlin D.J.. Respiratory and Cardiovascular Adjustments during Exercise of Increasing Intensity and during Recovery in Thoroughbred Racehorses. J. Exp. Biol. 1993;179:159–180.
    doi: 10.1242/jeb.179.1.159pubmed: 8340728google scholar: lookup
  62. Hyatt R.E., Scanlon P.D., Nakamura M.. Interpretation of Pulmonary Function Tests. .
  63. . Clinical Application of Pulmonary Function Testing in Horses. .
  64. Burnheim K., Hughes K.J., Evans D.L., Raidal S.L.. Reliability of Breath by Breath Spirometry and Relative Flow-Time Indices for Pulmonary Function Testing in Horses. BMC Vet. Res. 2016;12:268.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-016-0893-3pmc: PMC5126818pubmed: 27894292google scholar: lookup
  65. Herteman N., Mosing M., Waldmann A., Gerber V., Schoster A.. Exercise-induced Airflow Changes in Horses with Asthma Measured by Electrical Impedance Tomography. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2021;35:2500–2510.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.16260pmc: PMC8478024pubmed: 34505734google scholar: lookup
  66. Erck E., Votion D., Art T., Lekeux P.. Measurement of Respiratory Function by Impulse Oscillometry in Horses. Equine Vet. J. 2010;36:21–28.
    doi: 10.2746/0425164044864714pubmed: 14756367google scholar: lookup
  67. Moens Y.P.S.. Clinical Application of Continuous Spirometry with a Pitot-Based Flow Meter during Equine Anaesthesia. Equine Vet. Educ. 2010;22:354–360.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2010.00066.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  68. Evans D.L., Kiddell L., Smith C.L.. Pulmonary Function Measurements Immediately after Exercise Are Correlated with Neutrophil Percentage in Tracheal Aspirates in Horses with Poor Racing Performance. Res. Vet. Sci. 2011;90:510–515.
    doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.07.003pubmed: 20678784google scholar: lookup
  69. Herholz C., Straub R., Braendlin C., Imhof A., Lüthi S., Busato A.. Measurement of Tidal Breathing Flow-Volume Loop Indices in Horses Used for Different Sporting Purposes with and without Recurrent Airway Obstruction. Vet. Rec. 2003;152:288–292.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.152.10.288pubmed: 12650471google scholar: lookup
  70. Raidal S.L., Burnheim K., Evans D., Hughes K.J.. Effects of Sedation and Salbutamol Administration on Hyperpnoea and Tidal Breathing Spirometry in Healthy Horses. Vet. J. 2017;222:22–28.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2017.03.001pubmed: 28410672google scholar: lookup
  71. Mosing M., Marly-Voquer C., Macfarlane P., Bardell D., Bohm S., Bettschart-Wolfensberger R., Waldmann A.. Regional Distribution of Ventilation in Horses in Dorsal Recumbency during Spontaneous and Mechanical Ventilation Assessed by Electrical Impedance Tomography: A Case Series. Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 2016;44:127–132.
    doi: 10.1111/vaa.12405pubmed: 27483208google scholar: lookup
  72. Ambrisko T.D., Schramel J.P., Adler A., Kutasi O., Makra Z., Moens Y.P.S.. Assessment of Distribution of Ventilation by Electrical Impedance Tomography in Standing Horses. Physiol. Meas. 2015;37:175–186.
    doi: 10.1088/0967-3334/37/2/175pubmed: 26711858google scholar: lookup
  73. Secombe C., Adler A., Hosgood G., Raisis A., Mosing M.. Can Bronchoconstriction and Bronchodilatation in Horses Be Detected Using Electrical Impedance Tomography?. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2021;35:2035–2044.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.16152pmc: PMC8295671pubmed: 33977584google scholar: lookup
  74. Van Erck E., Votion D.M., Kirschvink N., Art T., Lekeux P.. Use of the Impulse Oscillometry System for Testing Pulmonary Function during Methacholine Bronchoprovocation in Horses. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2003;64:1414–1420.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2003.64.1414pubmed: 14620779google scholar: lookup
  75. Van Erck E., Votion D., Kirschvink N., Genicot B., Lindsey J., Art T., Lekeux P.. Influence of Breathing Pattern and Lung Inflation on Impulse Oscillometry Measurements in Horses. Vet. J. 2004;168:259–269.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2003.09.010pubmed: 15501143google scholar: lookup
  76. Klein C., Smith H.-J., Reinhold P.. The Use of Impulse Oscillometry for Separate Analysis of Inspiratory and Expiratory Impedance Parameters in Horses: Effects of Sedation with Xylazine. Res. Vet. Sci. 2006;80:201–208.
    doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2005.06.005pubmed: 16098552google scholar: lookup
  77. Stucchi L., Ferrucci F., Bullone M., Dellacà R.L., Lavoie J.P.. Within-Breath Oscillatory Mechanics in Horses Affected by Severe Equine Asthma in Exacerbation and in Remission of the Disease. Animals 2022;12:4.
    doi: 10.3390/ani12010004pmc: PMC8749667pubmed: 35011110google scholar: lookup
  78. Vogelmeier C.F., Criner G.J., Martinez F.J., Anzueto A., Barnes P.J., Bourbeau J., Celli B.R., Chen R., Decramer M., Fabbri L.M.. Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease 2017 Report. GOLD Executive Summary. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2017;195:557–582.
    doi: 10.1164/rccm.201701-0218PPpubmed: 28128970google scholar: lookup
  79. Moore V.C.. Spirometry: Step by Step. Breathe 2012;8:232–240.
    doi: 10.1183/20734735.0021711pmc: PMC9973498pubmed: 36867111google scholar: lookup
  80. Leith D.E.. Comparative Mammalian Respiratory Mechanics. Physiologist 1976;19:485–510.
    pubmed: 996118
  81. Jat K.R.. Spirometry in Children. Prim. Care Respir. J. 2013;22:221–229.
    doi: 10.4104/pcrj.2013.00042pmc: PMC6442789pubmed: 23732636google scholar: lookup
  82. Guthrie A.J., Beadle R.E., Bateman R.D., White C.E.. Characterization of Normal Tidal Breathing Flow-Volume Loops for Thoroughbred Horses. Vet. Res. Commun. 1995;19:331–342.
    doi: 10.1007/BF01839315pubmed: 8540244google scholar: lookup
  83. Art T., Lekeux P.. Respiratory Airflow Patterns in Ponies at Rest and during Exercise. Can. J. Vet. Res. 1988;52:299–303.
    pmc: PMC1255452pubmed: 3167715
  84. Connally B.A., Derksen F.J.. Tidal Breathing Flow-Volume Loop Analysis as a Test of Pulmonary Function in Exercising Horses. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1994;55:589–594.
    pubmed: 8067603
  85. Petsche V.M., Derksen F.J., Robinson N.E.. Tidal Breathing Flow-Volume Loops in Horses with Recurrent Airway Obstruction (Heaves). Am. J. Vet. Res. 1994;55:885–891.
    pubmed: 7978623
  86. Mazan M.R., Hoffman A.M.. Effects of Aerosolized Albuterol on Physiologic Responses to Exercise in Standardbreds. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2001;62:1812–1817.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2001.62.1812pubmed: 11703029google scholar: lookup
  87. Frerichs I., Amato M.B.P., van Kaam A.H., Tingay D.G., Zhao Z., Grychtol B., Bodenstein M., Gagnon H., Böhm S.H., Teschner E.. Chest Electrical Impedance Tomography Examination, Data Analysis, Terminology, Clinical Use and Recommendations: Consensus Statement of the TRanslational EIT DevelopmeNt StuDy Group. Thorax 2017;72:83–93.
    doi: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2016-208357pmc: PMC5329047pubmed: 27596161google scholar: lookup
  88. Wang Y.-M., Sun X.-M., Zhou Y.-M., Chen J.-R., Cheng K.-M., Li H.-L., Yang Y.-L., Zhang L., Zhou J.-X.. Use of Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT) to Estimate Global and Regional Lung Recruitment Volume (VREC) Induced by Positive End-Expiratory Pressure (PEEP): An Experiment in Pigs with Lung Injury. Med. Sci. Monit. 2020;26:e922609.
    doi: 10.12659/MSM.922609pmc: PMC7094060pubmed: 32172276google scholar: lookup
  89. Dijkstra A.M., Brown B.H., Leathard A.D., Harris N.D., Barber D.C., Edbrooke D.L.. Review Clinical Applications of Electrical Impedance Tomography. J. Med. Eng. Technol. 1993;17:89–98.
    doi: 10.3109/03091909309016213pubmed: 8263905google scholar: lookup
  90. Secombe C., Waldmann A., Hosgood G., Mosing M.. Evaluation of Histamine-provoked Changes in Airflow Using Electrical Impedance Tomography in Horses. Equine Vet. J. 2019;52:556–563.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.13216pubmed: 31793056google scholar: lookup
  91. Wey C., Meira C., Mosing M., Bleul U.. Development of the Postnatal Lung in Bovine Neonates Illustrated by Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT); Proceedings of the Conference: Workshop on Gonadal Function, Gamete Interaction and Pregnancy (GGP); Giessen, Germany. 30 October 2017. .
  92. Ambrisko T., Schramel J., Auer U., Moens Y., Staffieri F.. Impact of Four Different Recumbencies on the Distribution of Ventilation in Conscious or Anaesthetized Spontaneously Breathing Beagle Dogs: An Electrical Impedance Tomography Study. PLoS ONE 2017;12:e0183340.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0183340pmc: PMC5603158pubmed: 28922361google scholar: lookup
  93. Moens Y., Schramel J., Tusman G., Ambrisko T., Solà J., Brunner J., Kowalczyk L., Böhm S.. Variety of Non-Invasive Continuous Monitoring Methodologies Including Electrical Impedance Tomography Provides Novel Insights into the Physiology of Lung Collapse and Recruitment—Case Report of an Anaesthetized Horse. Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 2013;41:196–204.
    doi: 10.1111/vaa.12098pubmed: 24734295google scholar: lookup
  94. Mosing M., Sacks M., Tahas S., Ranninger E., Bohm S., Campagna I., Waldmann A.. Ventilatory Incidents Monitored by Electrical Impedance Tomography in an Anaesthetized Orangutan (Pongo Abelii). Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 2017;44:973–976.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vaa.2016.12.060pubmed: 28865953google scholar: lookup
  95. Schramel J., Nagel C., Auer U., Palm F., Aurich C., Moens Y.. Distribution of Ventilation in Pregnant Shetland Ponies Measured by Electrical Impedance Tomography. Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol. 2012;180:258–262.
    doi: 10.1016/j.resp.2011.11.018pubmed: 22155406google scholar: lookup
  96. Milne S., Huvanandana J., Nguyen C., Duncan J.M., Chapman D.G., Tonga K.O., Zimmermann S.C., Slattery A., King G.G., Thamrin C.. Time-Based Pulmonary Features from Electrical Impedance Tomography Demonstrate Ventilation Heterogeneity in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. J. Appl. Physiol. 2019;127:1441–1452.
    doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00304.2019pubmed: 31556831google scholar: lookup
  97. Mosing M., Waldmann A., Macfarlane P., Iff S., Auer U., Bohm S., Bettschart-Wolfensberger R., Bardell D.. Horses Auto-Recruit Their Lungs by Inspiratory Breath Holding Following Recovery from General Anaesthesia. PLoS ONE 2016;11:e0158080.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0158080pmc: PMC4917253pubmed: 27331910google scholar: lookup
  98. Auer U., Schramel J., Moens Y., Mosing M., Braun C.. Monitoring Changes in Distribution of Pulmonary Ventilation by Functional Electrical Impedance Tomography in Anaesthetized Ponies. Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 2018;46:200–208.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vaa.2018.09.048pubmed: 30732976google scholar: lookup
  99. Wettstein D., Moens Y., Jaeggin-Schmucker N., Böhm S.H., Rothen H.U., Mosing M., Kästner S.B.R., Schatzmann U.. Effects of an Alveolar Recruitment Maneuver on Cardiovascular and Respiratory Parameters during Total Intravenous Anesthesia in Ponies. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2006;67:152–159.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.67.1.152pubmed: 16426225google scholar: lookup
  100. Mosing M., Auer U., Macfarlane P., Bardell D., Schramel J., Bohm S., Bettschart-Wolfensberger R., Waldmann A.. Regional Ventilation Distribution and Dead Space in Anaesthetised Horses Treated with and without Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP). Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 2017;45:31–40.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vaa.2017.06.004pubmed: 29222030google scholar: lookup
  101. Balleza M., Casan P., Riu P.J.. Tidal Volume Monitoring with Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT) on COPD Patients. Relationship Between EIT and Diffusion Lung Transfer (DL,CO). 2009. pp. 549–552.
  102. Vogt B., Pulletz S., Elke G., Zhao Z., Zabel P., Weiler N., Frerichs I.. Spatial and Temporal Heterogeneity of Regional Lung Ventilation Determined by Electrical Impedance Tomography during Pulmonary Function Testing. J. Appl. Physiol. 2012;113:1154–1161.
    doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01630.2011pubmed: 22898553google scholar: lookup
  103. Leclere M., Lavoie-Lamoureux A., Lavoie J.-P.. Heaves, an Asthma-like Disease of Horses. Respirology 2011;16:1027–1046.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1843.2011.02033.xpubmed: 21824219google scholar: lookup
  104. Komarow H.D., Myles I.A., Uzzaman A., Metcalfe D.D.. Impulse Oscillometry in the Evaluation of Diseases of the Airways in Children. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2011;106:191–199.
    doi: 10.1016/j.anai.2010.11.011pmc: PMC3401927pubmed: 21354020google scholar: lookup
  105. Richard E.A., Fortier G.D., Denoix J.-M., Art T., Lekeux P.M., Erck E. van. Influence of Subclinical Inflammatory Airway Disease on Equine Respiratory Function Evaluated by Impulse Oscillometry. Equine Vet. J. 2009;41:384–389.
    doi: 10.2746/042516409X366121pubmed: 19562901google scholar: lookup
  106. Koulouris N.G., Hardavella G.. Physiological Techniques for Detecting Expiratory Flow Limitation during Tidal Breathing. Eur. Respir. Rev. 2011;20:147–155.
    doi: 10.1183/09059180.00001911pmc: PMC9584109pubmed: 21881143google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 10 times.
  1. Lendl L, Wirth C, Merle R, Barton AK. Influence of a Standardized Lunging Exercise Test on BALF Cytology in Horses Suffering from Mild-Moderate Equine Asthma. Animals (Basel) 2025 Aug 19;15(16).
    doi: 10.3390/ani15162428pubmed: 40867756google scholar: lookup
  2. Yamaga T, Tagami M, Takeyama A, Kato F, Suzuki T, Tagami M, Tsuzuki N. Preoperative computed tomography imaging for accurate diagnosis and surgical planning in equine cranial disorders: two case reports of congenital malformations. J Equine Sci 2025;36(1):33-37.
    doi: 10.1294/jes.36.33pubmed: 40115729google scholar: lookup
  3. Turek B, Pawlikowski M, Jankowski K, Borowska M, Skierbiszewska K, Jasiński T, Domino M. Selection of density standard and X-ray tube settings for computed digital absorptiometry in horses using the k-means clustering algorithm. BMC Vet Res 2025 Mar 13;21(1):165.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-025-04591-5pubmed: 40082938google scholar: lookup
  4. Lendl L, Barton AK. Equine Asthma Diagnostics: Review of Influencing Factors and Difficulties in Diagnosing Subclinical Disease. Animals (Basel) 2024 Dec 4;14(23).
    doi: 10.3390/ani14233504pubmed: 39682469google scholar: lookup
  5. Cui Z, Liu X, Qu H, Wang H. Technical Principles and Clinical Applications of Electrical Impedance Tomography in Pulmonary Monitoring. Sensors (Basel) 2024 Jul 13;24(14).
    doi: 10.3390/s24144539pubmed: 39065936google scholar: lookup
  6. Mańkowska A, Witkowska D. The Most Common Environmental Risk Factors for Equine Asthma-A Narrative Review. Animals (Basel) 2024 Jul 14;14(14).
    doi: 10.3390/ani14142062pubmed: 39061524google scholar: lookup
  7. Simões J, Tilley P. Decision Making in Severe Equine Asthma-Diagnosis and Monitoring. Animals (Basel) 2023 Dec 16;13(24).
    doi: 10.3390/ani13243872pubmed: 38136909google scholar: lookup
  8. Borowska M, Jasiński T, Gierasimiuk S, Pauk J, Turek B, Górski K, Domino M. Three-Dimensional Segmentation Assisted with Clustering Analysis for Surface and Volume Measurements of Equine Incisor in Multidetector Computed Tomography Data Sets. Sensors (Basel) 2023 Nov 2;23(21).
    doi: 10.3390/s23218940pubmed: 37960639google scholar: lookup
  9. Stucchi L, Lo Feudo CM, Ferrucci F. Equine Respiratory Medicine and Cardiology. Animals (Basel) 2023 Sep 18;13(18).
    doi: 10.3390/ani13182952pubmed: 37760352google scholar: lookup
  10. Kozłowska N, Wierzbicka M, Pawliński B, Domino M. Co-Occurrence of Severe Equine Asthma and Palatal Disorders in Privately Owned Pleasure Horses. Animals (Basel) 2023 Jun 12;13(12).
    doi: 10.3390/ani13121962pubmed: 37370472google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,359 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.