Omneity® Pellets
All-In-One Vitamin & Mineral Pellet
Biomechanical and energetic determinants of the walk-trot transition in horses.
Abstract: We studied nine adult horses spanning an eightfold range in body mass (M(b)) (90-720 kg) and a twofold range in leg length (L) (0.7-1.4 m). We measured the horses' walk-trot transition speeds using step-wise speed increments as they locomoted on a motorized treadmill. We then measured their rates of oxygen consumption over a wide range of walking and trotting speeds. We interpreted the transition speed results using a simple inverted-pendulum model of walking in which gravity provides the centripetal force necessary to keep the leg in contact with the ground. By studying a large size range of horses, we were naturally able to vary the absolute walking speed that would produce the same ratio of centripetal to gravitational forces. This ratio, (M(b)v2/L)/(M(b)g), reduces to the dimensionless Froude number (v2/gL), where v is forward speed, L is leg length and g is gravitational acceleration. We found that the absolute walk-trot transition speed increased with size from 1.6 to 2.3 m s(-1), but it occurred at nearly the same Froude number (0.35). In addition, horses spontaneously switched between gaits in a narrow range of speeds that corresponded to the metabolically optimal transition speed. These results support the hypotheses that the walk-trot transition is triggered by inverted-pendulum dynamics and occurs at the speed that maximizes metabolic economy.
Publication Date: 2004-11-09 PubMed ID: 15531642DOI: 10.1242/jeb.01277Google Scholar: Lookup The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
- Comparative Study
- Journal Article
- Research Support
- Non-U.S. Gov't
- Research Support
- U.S. Gov't
- Non-P.H.S.
- Research Support
- U.S. Gov't
- P.H.S.
Summary
This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.
This research observed nine horses of varying size and leg lengths to gain insights into the biomechanics and energy efficiency during their transition from walking to trotting. The study concluded that the walk-trot transition is dictated by factors such as gravity and leg contact with the ground (described using an inverted-pendulum model) and usually occurs at a speed that offers optimal metabolic economy.
Objective of the Research
- The main objective of this research is to understand the biomechanical and energetic factors that determine the transition from walking to trotting in horses.
- The study aimed to validate the hypothesis that the inverted-pendulum dynamics trigger the transition between walking and trotting in horses, and it is optimized for metabolic economy.
Research Methodology
- Researchers selected nine adult horses for the study, varying in body mass and leg length, to ensure diverse data points.
- The animals were made to perform step-wise speed increments on a motorized treadmill, and their rates of oxygen consumption were measured across a broad range of walking and trotting speeds.
- This study modelled the walking mechanism of horses as an inverted pendulum, in which gravity provides the force to maintain leg contact with the ground.
Key Findings
- The researchers found that the absolute speed at which horses transition from walking to trotting increased with size — ranging from 1.6 to 2.3 m/s. However, this transition occurs at nearly the same Froude number (a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of a body’s gravitational to inertial forces).
- The study revealed that horses tend to switch between gaits within a narrow range of speeds, which correspond to the speed that optimizes metabolic economy. This transition speed is, therefore, seemingly influenced by the horses’ natural drive towards energy efficiency.
Conclusions
- The results from the study lend support to the hypothesis that the transition from walking to trotting in horses is triggered by the forces described by the inverted-pendulum model.
- It further concludes that this transition occurs at speeds that maximize the horses’ metabolic economy, suggesting that a natural predisposition towards energy optimization could be determining this transition speed.
Cite This Article
APA
Griffin TM, Kram R, Wickler SJ, Hoyt DF.
(2004).
Biomechanical and energetic determinants of the walk-trot transition in horses.
J Exp Biol, 207(Pt 24), 4215-4223.
https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.01277 Publication
Researcher Affiliations
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3140, USA. tmgriff@duke.edu
MeSH Terms
- Analysis of Variance
- Animals
- Biomechanical Phenomena
- Biophysical Phenomena
- Biophysics
- Body Weights and Measures
- Horses / physiology
- Locomotion / physiology
- Oxygen Consumption / physiology
Grant Funding
- AR44688 / NIAMS NIH HHS
- S06 GM53933 / NIGMS NIH HHS
Citations
This article has been cited 24 times.- Daniels KAJ, Burn JF. Human locomotion over obstacles reveals real-time prediction of energy expenditure for optimized decision-making. Proc Biol Sci 2023 Jun 14;290(2000):20230200.
- De Bari B, Kondepudi DK, Dixon JA. Foraging Dynamics and Entropy Production in a Simulated Proto-Cell. Entropy (Basel) 2022 Dec 8;24(12).
- Varella TT, Zhang YS, Takahashi DY, Ghazanfar AA. A mechanism for punctuating equilibria during mammalian vocal development. PLoS Comput Biol 2022 Jun;18(6):e1010173.
- Frigon A, Akay T, Prilutsky BI. Control of Mammalian Locomotion by Somatosensory Feedback. Compr Physiol 2021 Dec 29;12(1):2877-2947.
- Kott A, Gart S, Pusey J. From cockroaches to tanks: The same power-mass-speed relation describes both biological and artificial ground-mobile systems. PLoS One 2021;16(4):e0249066.
- Smith BJH, Usherwood JR. Minimalist analogue robot discovers animal-like walking gaits. Bioinspir Biomim 2020 Feb 7;15(2):026004.
- Granatosky MC, Bryce CM, Hanna J, Fitzsimons A, Laird MF, Stilson K, Wall CE, Ross CF. Inter-stride variability triggers gait transitions in mammals and birds. Proc Biol Sci 2018 Dec 19;285(1893):20181766.
- Aoi S, Manoonpong P, Ambe Y, Matsuno F, Wörgötter F. Adaptive Control Strategies for Interlimb Coordination in Legged Robots: A Review. Front Neurorobot 2017;11:39.
- Wilshin S, Haynes GC, Porteous J, Koditschek D, Revzen S, Spence AJ. Morphology and the gradient of a symmetric potential predict gait transitions of dogs. Biol Cybern 2017 Aug;111(3-4):269-277.
- Owaki D, Ishiguro A. A Quadruped Robot Exhibiting Spontaneous Gait Transitions from Walking to Trotting to Galloping. Sci Rep 2017 Mar 21;7(1):277.
- Sparrow LM, Pellatt E, Yu SS, Raichlen DA, Pontzer H, Rolian C. Gait changes in a line of mice artificially selected for longer limbs. PeerJ 2017;5:e3008.
- Gan Z, Wiestner T, Weishaupt MA, Waldern NM, David Remy C. Passive Dynamics Explain Quadrupedal Walking, Trotting, and Tölting. J Comput Nonlinear Dyn 2016 Mar;11(2):0210081-2100812.
- Wei X, Long Y, Wang C, Wang S. A Critical Characteristic in the Transverse Galloping Pattern. Appl Bionics Biomech 2015;2015:631354.
- Rose KA, Nudds RL, Butler PJ, Codd JR. Sex differences in gait utilization and energy metabolism during terrestrial locomotion in two varieties of chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) selected for different body size. Biol Open 2015 Sep 24;4(10):1306-15.
- Rose KA, Nudds RL, Codd JR. Intraspecific scaling of the minimum metabolic cost of transport in leghorn chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus): links with limb kinematics, morphometrics and posture. J Exp Biol 2015 Apr;218(Pt 7):1028-34.
- Aoi S, Katayama D, Fujiki S, Tomita N, Funato T, Yamashita T, Senda K, Tsuchiya K. A stability-based mechanism for hysteresis in the walk-trot transition in quadruped locomotion. J R Soc Interface 2013 Apr 6;10(81):20120908.
- Garcia E, Arevalo JC, Muñoz G, Gonzalez-de-Santos P. On the biomimetic design of agile-robot legs. Sensors (Basel) 2011;11(12):11305-34.
- Kramer PA, Sylvester AD. The energetic cost of walking: a comparison of predictive methods. PLoS One 2011;6(6):e21290.
- Hanna JB, Schmitt D. Locomotor energetics in primates: gait mechanics and their relationship to the energetics of vertical and horizontal locomotion. Am J Phys Anthropol 2011 May;145(1):43-54.
- Watson RR, Rubenson J, Coder L, Hoyt DF, Propert MW, Marsh RL. Gait-specific energetics contributes to economical walking and running in emus and ostriches. Proc Biol Sci 2011 Jul 7;278(1714):2040-6.
- Starke SD, Robilliard JJ, Weller R, Wilson AM, Pfau T. Walk-run classification of symmetrical gaits in the horse: a multidimensional approach. J R Soc Interface 2009 Apr 6;6(33):335-42.
- Ren L, Hutchinson JR. The three-dimensional locomotor dynamics of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants reveal a smooth gait transition at moderate speed. J R Soc Interface 2008 Feb 6;5(19):195-211.
- Teoh HK, Biswas D, Leung A, Kemper Ludlow B, Whitehead S, Ehrhard E, Dickinson M, Beatus T, Cowan NJ, Cohen I. How tp1, an indirect wing steering muscle, stabilizes Drosophila's flight. bioRxiv 2025 Nov 8;.
- Shafiee M, Bellegarda G, Ijspeert A. Viability leads to the emergence of gait transitions in learning agile quadrupedal locomotion on challenging terrains. Nat Commun 2024 Apr 9;15(1):3073.
Use Nutrition Calculator
Check if your horse's diet meets their nutrition requirements with our easy-to-use tool Check your horse's diet with our easy-to-use tool
Talk to a Nutritionist
Discuss your horse's feeding plan with our experts over a free phone consultation Discuss your horse's diet over a phone consultation
Submit Diet Evaluation
Get a customized feeding plan for your horse formulated by our equine nutritionists Get a custom feeding plan formulated by our nutritionists
