FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Infectious diseases (London, England)2016; 48(8); 571-586; doi: 10.3109/23744235.2016.1164890

Epidemiological and clinical aspects on West Nile virus, a globally emerging pathogen.

Abstract: Since the isolation of West Nile virus (WNV) in 1937, in Uganda, it has spread globally, causing significant morbidity and mortality. While birds serve as amplifier hosts, mosquitoes of the Culex genus function as vectors. Humans and horses are dead end hosts. The clinical manifestations of West Nile infection in humans range from asymptomatic illness to West Nile encephalitis. Methods: The laboratory offers an array of tests, the preferred method being detection of RNA and serum IgM for WNV, which, if detected, confirms the clinical diagnosis. Although no definitive antiviral therapy and vaccine are available for humans, many approaches are being studied. Methods: This article will review the current literature of the natural cycle, geographical distribution, virology, replication cycle, molecular epidemiology, pathogenesis, laboratory diagnosis, clinical manifestations, blood donor screening for WNV, treatment, prevention and vaccines.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2016-05-20 PubMed ID: 27207312DOI: 10.3109/23744235.2016.1164890Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This research article reviews key aspects of the West Nile virus, including its global spread, its transmission via birds and mosquitoes, its effects in humans, and current methods for diagnosis and treatment.

Epidemiology and Spread

  • The research provides an overview of the global spread of West Nile virus (WNV), which was first identified in Uganda in 1937. It details how the virus has since caused widespread illness and death around the world.
  • The host cycle of the virus involves birds, which are the main carriers of the virus, and mosquitoes of the Culex genus, which act as vectors transmitting the virus between birds and other species.
  • Humans and horses, although they can become infected, do not contribute to the further spread of the virus (termed “dead-end” hosts).

Clinical Manifestations in Humans

  • The researchers differentiate between the various symptoms that WNV can cause in humans. These range from no symptoms at all (asymptomatic) up to severe neurological illness, including a form of encephalitis.
  • The importance of accurate laboratory diagnosis is emphasized, with detection of the viral RNA and a specific immune response (serum IgM) being the preferred methods.

Current Research Approaches

  • Currently, there is no specific antiviral treatment available for WNV, nor is there a vaccine that can prevent infection in humans.
  • Nevertheless, the authors discuss ongoing research efforts to develop these. It is implied that progress may be slow due to the complex nature of the virus cycle and the diverse symptoms it can cause.
  • Additionally, the article also covers the current literature on the natural cycle of WNV, its geographical distribution, virology, replication cycle, molecular epidemiology, pathogenesis, laboratory diagnosis, clinical manifestations, blood donor screening, treatment options, preventative methods, and potential vaccines.

Cite This Article

APA
David S, Abraham AM. (2016). Epidemiological and clinical aspects on West Nile virus, a globally emerging pathogen. Infect Dis (Lond), 48(8), 571-586. https://doi.org/10.3109/23744235.2016.1164890

Publication

Infectious diseases (London, England)
ISSN: 2374-4243
NlmUniqueID: 101650235
Country: England
Language: English
Volume: 48
Issue: 8
Pages: 571-586

Researcher Affiliations

David, Shoba
  • a Department of Clinical Virology , Christian Medical College , Vellore , Tamil Nadu , India.
Abraham, Asha Mary
  • a Department of Clinical Virology , Christian Medical College , Vellore , Tamil Nadu , India.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Birds
  • Communicable Diseases, Emerging / epidemiology
  • Communicable Diseases, Emerging / physiopathology
  • Communicable Diseases, Emerging / transmission
  • Communicable Diseases, Emerging / virology
  • Culex
  • Disease Reservoirs
  • Horses
  • Humans
  • Insect Vectors
  • West Nile Fever / epidemiology
  • West Nile Fever / physiopathology
  • West Nile Fever / transmission
  • West Nile Fever / virology
  • West Nile virus / genetics
  • West Nile virus / pathogenicity

Citations

This article has been cited 42 times.
  1. Schwarzer A, Schopf F, Groschup MH, Bock S, Heenemann K, Herms L, Himmelreich A, Kenklies S, Kilwinski J, Konrath A, Michel F, Müller K, Priemer G, Rahner R, Sauerwald C, Scuda N, Siempelkamp T, Skuballa J, Wonnemann H, Keller M, Vahlenkamp TW, Ziegler U, Sadeghi B. Circulation dynamics of West Nile virus in Germany, 2023 and 2024. Virol J 2025 Dec 18;23(1).
    doi: 10.1186/s12985-025-03043-8pubmed: 41413585google scholar: lookup
  2. Schwarzer A, Ziegler U, Fertey J, Kreuz M, Vahlenkamp TW, Groschup MH, Ulbert S. Serological differentiation of West Nile, Usutu, and tick-borne encephalitis virus antibodies in birds and horses using mutant E protein ELISAs. Sci Rep 2025 Aug 6;15(1):28752.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-14448-4pubmed: 40770485google scholar: lookup
  3. Bump ER, Bharadwaja A, Simonson S, Ortega E, Wimberly MC. Integrating Wind Speed Into Climate-Based West Nile Virus Models: A Comparative Analysis in Two Distinct Regions. Geohealth 2025 Jul;9(7):e2024GH001320.
    doi: 10.1029/2024GH001320pubmed: 40621447google scholar: lookup
  4. Bruno L, Nappo MA, Frontoso R, Perrotta MG, Di Lecce R, Guarnieri C, Ferrari L, Corradi A. West Nile Virus (WNV): One-Health and Eco-Health Global Risks. Vet Sci 2025 Mar 19;12(3).
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci12030288pubmed: 40266979google scholar: lookup
  5. Du Y, Deng Y, Zhan Y, Yang R, Ren J, Wang W, Huang B, Tan W. The recombinant truncated envelope protein of West Nile virus adjuvanted with Alum/CpG induces potent humoral and T cell immunity in mice. Biosaf Health 2023 Oct;5(5):300-307.
    doi: 10.1016/j.bsheal.2023.06.003pubmed: 40078908google scholar: lookup
  6. Carrasco L, Utrilla MJ, Fuentes-Romero B, Fernandez-Novo A, Martin-Maldonado B. West Nile Virus: An Update Focusing on Southern Europe. Microorganisms 2024 Dec 18;12(12).
    doi: 10.3390/microorganisms12122623pubmed: 39770826google scholar: lookup
  7. Álvarez-Mínguez A, Del Río N, Belén-Blázquez A, Casanova E, Orduña JM, Camarero P, Hurtado-Marcos C, Del Águila C, Pérez-Pérez MJ, Martín-Acebes MA, Agudo R. Development of a luminescence-based method for measuring West Nile Virus MTase activity and its application to screen for antivirals. Curr Res Microb Sci 2024;7:100282.
    doi: 10.1016/j.crmicr.2024.100282pubmed: 39445035google scholar: lookup
  8. Wang HR, Liu T, Gao X, Wang HB, Xiao JH. Impact of climate change on the global circulation of West Nile virus and adaptation responses: a scoping review. Infect Dis Poverty 2024 May 24;13(1):38.
    doi: 10.1186/s40249-024-01207-2pubmed: 38790027google scholar: lookup
  9. Mengyi Z, Yuhui L, Zhan G, Anqing L, Yujia L, Shilin L, Lei G, Yue L, Mei H, Jianhua W, Weilan H, Wei M, Jie C, Jingyu Z, Yijing Y, Yanli G, Qiulei Z, Yang H, Limin C, Zhenxin F, Miao H. Plasma metagenomics reveals regional variations of emerging and re-emerging pathogens in Chinese blood donors with an emphasis on human parvovirus B19. One Health 2023 Dec;17:100602.
    doi: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2023.100602pubmed: 37520848google scholar: lookup
  10. Tsioka K, Gewehr S, Pappa S, Kalaitzopoulou S, Stoikou K, Mourelatos S, Papa A. West Nile Virus in Culex Mosquitoes in Central Macedonia, Greece, 2022. Viruses 2023 Jan 13;15(1).
    doi: 10.3390/v15010224pubmed: 36680264google scholar: lookup
  11. Hameed M, Geerling E, Pinto AK, Miraj I, Weger-Lucarelli J. Immune response to arbovirus infection in obesity. Front Immunol 2022;13:968582.
    doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.968582pubmed: 36466818google scholar: lookup
  12. Coroian M, Silaghi C, Tews BA, Baltag EȘ, Marinov M, Alexe V, Kalmár Z, Cintia H, Lupșe MS, Mihalca AD. Serological Survey of Mosquito-Borne Arboviruses in Wild Birds from Important Migratory Hotspots in Romania. Pathogens 2022 Oct 31;11(11).
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens11111270pubmed: 36365021google scholar: lookup
  13. García-Bocanegra I, Franco JJ, León CI, Barbero-Moyano J, García-Miña MV, Fernández-Molera V, Gómez MB, Cano-Terriza D, Gonzálvez M. High exposure of West Nile virus in equid and wild bird populations in Spain following the epidemic outbreak in 2020. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022 Nov;69(6):3624-3636.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.14733pubmed: 36222172google scholar: lookup
  14. Misra UK, Kalita J. Changing Spectrum of Acute Encephalitis Syndrome in India and a Syndromic Approach. Ann Indian Acad Neurol 2022 May-Jun;25(3):354-366.
    doi: 10.4103/aian.aian_1117_21pubmed: 35936627google scholar: lookup
  15. Wang T, Hu L, Liu M, Wang T, Hu X, Li Y, Liu W, Li Y, Wang Y, Ren H, Zhang W, Wang C, Li L. The Emergence of Viral Encephalitis in Donkeys by Equid Herpesvirus 8 in China. Front Microbiol 2022;13:840754.
    doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.840754pubmed: 35308333google scholar: lookup
  16. Shartova N, Mironova V, Zelikhina S, Korennoy F, Grishchenko M. Spatial patterns of West Nile virus distribution in the Volgograd region of Russia, a territory with long-existing foci. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022 Jan;16(1):e0010145.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010145pubmed: 35100289google scholar: lookup
  17. Öhlund P, Delhomme N, Hayer J, Hesson JC, Blomström AL. Transcriptome Analysis of an Aedes albopictus Cell Line Single- and Dual-Infected with Lammi Virus and WNV. Int J Mol Sci 2022 Jan 14;23(2).
    doi: 10.3390/ijms23020875pubmed: 35055061google scholar: lookup
  18. Zhou G, Li Y, Jeang B, Wang X, Cummings RF, Zhong D, Yan G. Emerging Mosquito Resistance to Piperonyl Butoxide-Synergized Pyrethroid Insecticide and Its Mechanism. J Med Entomol 2022 Mar 16;59(2):638-647.
    doi: 10.1093/jme/tjab231pubmed: 35050361google scholar: lookup
  19. Autore G, Bernardi L, Perrone S, Esposito S. Update on Viral Infections Involving the Central Nervous System in Pediatric Patients. Children (Basel) 2021 Sep 6;8(9).
    doi: 10.3390/children8090782pubmed: 34572214google scholar: lookup
  20. Aggarwal A, Adukia S, Bhatt M. Video Anthology of Movement Disorders Due to Infections in South Asia. Mov Disord Clin Pract 2021 Aug;8(6):843-858.
    doi: 10.1002/mdc3.13275pubmed: 34405094google scholar: lookup
  21. Zhao R, Wang M, Cao J, Shen J, Zhou X, Wang D, Cao J. Flavivirus: From Structure to Therapeutics Development. Life (Basel) 2021 Jun 25;11(7).
    doi: 10.3390/life11070615pubmed: 34202239google scholar: lookup
  22. Saiz JC, Martín-Acebes MA, Blázquez AB, Escribano-Romero E, Poderoso T, Jiménez de Oya N. Pathogenicity and virulence of West Nile virus revisited eight decades after its first isolation. Virulence 2021 Dec;12(1):1145-1173.
    doi: 10.1080/21505594.2021.1908740pubmed: 33843445google scholar: lookup
  23. Bitschi ML, Bagó Z, Rosati M, Reese S, Goehring LS, Matiasek K. A Systematic Approach to Dissection of the Equine Brain-Evaluation of a Species-Adapted Protocol for Beginners and Experts. Front Neuroanat 2020;14:614929.
    doi: 10.3389/fnana.2020.614929pubmed: 33390909google scholar: lookup
  24. Islam A, Islam S, Hossain ME, Ferdous J, Abedin J, Ziaur Rahman M, Rahman MK, Hoque MA, Hassan MM. Serological Evidence of West Nile Virus in Wild Birds in Bangladesh. Vet Sci 2020 Oct 28;7(4).
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci7040164pubmed: 33126740google scholar: lookup
  25. Chevalier V, Marsot M, Molia S, Rasamoelina H, Rakotondravao R, Pedrono M, Lowenski S, Durand B, Lecollinet S, Beck C. Serological Evidence of West Nile and Usutu Viruses Circulation in Domestic and Wild Birds in Wetlands of Mali and Madagascar in 2008. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020 Mar 18;17(6).
    doi: 10.3390/ijerph17061998pubmed: 32197367google scholar: lookup
  26. Cho HS, Yum J, Larivière A, Lévêque N, Le QVC, Ahn B, Jeon H, Hong K, Soundrarajan N, Kim JH, Bodet C, Park C. Opossum Cathelicidins Exhibit Antimicrobial Activity Against a Broad Spectrum of Pathogens Including West Nile Virus. Front Immunol 2020;11:347.
    doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00347pubmed: 32194564google scholar: lookup
  27. Ribeiro GS, Hamer GL, Diallo M, Kitron U, Ko AI, Weaver SC. Influence of herd immunity in the cyclical nature of arboviruses. Curr Opin Virol 2020 Feb;40:1-10.
    doi: 10.1016/j.coviro.2020.02.004pubmed: 32193135google scholar: lookup
  28. Martins MM, Prata-Barbosa A, Cunha AJLAD. Arboviral diseases in pediatrics. J Pediatr (Rio J) 2020 Mar-Apr;96 Suppl 1(Suppl 1):2-11.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jped.2019.08.005pubmed: 31605670google scholar: lookup
  29. Barba M, Fairbanks EL, Daly JM. Equine viral encephalitis: prevalence, impact, and management strategies. Vet Med (Auckl) 2019;10:99-110.
    doi: 10.2147/VMRR.S168227pubmed: 31497528google scholar: lookup
  30. Michel F, Sieg M, Fischer D, Keller M, Eiden M, Reuschel M, Schmidt V, Schwehn R, Rinder M, Urbaniak S, Müller K, Schmoock M, Lühken R, Wysocki P, Fast C, Lierz M, Korbel R, Vahlenkamp TW, Groschup MH, Ziegler U. Evidence for West Nile Virus and Usutu Virus Infections in Wild and Resident Birds in Germany, 2017 and 2018. Viruses 2019 Jul 23;11(7).
    doi: 10.3390/v11070674pubmed: 31340516google scholar: lookup
  31. Parkash V, Woods K, Kafetzopoulou L, Osborne J, Aarons E, Cartwright K. West Nile Virus Infection in Travelers Returning to United Kingdom from South Africa. Emerg Infect Dis 2019 Feb;25(2):367-369.
    doi: 10.3201/eid2502.172101pubmed: 30666938google scholar: lookup
  32. Garcia M, Alout H, Diop F, Damour A, Bengue M, Weill M, Missé D, Lévêque N, Bodet C. Innate Immune Response of Primary Human Keratinocytes to West Nile Virus Infection and Its Modulation by Mosquito Saliva. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018;8:387.
    doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00387pubmed: 30450338google scholar: lookup
  33. Charrel RN, Berenger JM, Laroche M, Ayhan N, Bitam I, Delaunay P, Parola P. Neglected vector-borne bacterial diseases and arboviruses in the Mediterranean area. New Microbes New Infect 2018 Nov;26:S31-S36.
    doi: 10.1016/j.nmni.2018.08.015pubmed: 30402241google scholar: lookup
  34. Radu RA, Terecoasă EO, Ene A, Băjenaru OA, Tiu C. Opsoclonus-Myoclonus Syndrome Associated With West-Nile Virus Infection: Case Report and Review of the Literature. Front Neurol 2018;9:864.
    doi: 10.3389/fneur.2018.00864pubmed: 30386288google scholar: lookup
  35. Veronesi E, Paslaru A, Silaghi C, Tobler K, Glavinic U, Torgerson P, Mathis A. Experimental evaluation of infection, dissemination, and transmission rates for two West Nile virus strains in European Aedes japonicus under a fluctuating temperature regime. Parasitol Res 2018 Jun;117(6):1925-1932.
    doi: 10.1007/s00436-018-5886-7pubmed: 29705877google scholar: lookup
  36. Kritzik KL, Kratz G, Panella NA, Burkhalter K, Clark RJ, Biggerstaff BJ, Komar N. DETERMINING RAPTOR SPECIES AND TISSUE SENSITIVITY FOR IMPROVED WEST NILE VIRUS SURVEILLANCE. J Wildl Dis 2018 Jul;54(3):528-533.
    doi: 10.7589/2017-12-292pubmed: 29617186google scholar: lookup
  37. Aguilar-Valenzuela R, Netland J, Seo YJ, Bevan MJ, Grakoui A, Suthar MS. Dynamics of Tissue-Specific CD8(+) T Cell Responses during West Nile Virus Infection. J Virol 2018 May 15;92(10).
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.00014-18pubmed: 29514902google scholar: lookup
  38. Michel F, Fischer D, Eiden M, Fast C, Reuschel M, Müller K, Rinder M, Urbaniak S, Brandes F, Schwehn R, Lühken R, Groschup MH, Ziegler U. West Nile Virus and Usutu Virus Monitoring of Wild Birds in Germany. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2018 Jan 22;15(1).
    doi: 10.3390/ijerph15010171pubmed: 29361762google scholar: lookup
  39. Fall G, Di Paola N, Faye M, Dia M, Freire CCM, Loucoubar C, Zanotto PMA, Faye O, Sall AA. Biological and phylogenetic characteristics of West African lineages of West Nile virus. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017 Nov;11(11):e0006078.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006078pubmed: 29117195google scholar: lookup
  40. Helmy YA, El-Adawy H, Abdelwhab EM. A Comprehensive Review of Common Bacterial, Parasitic and Viral Zoonoses at the Human-Animal Interface in Egypt. Pathogens 2017 Jul 21;6(3).
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens6030033pubmed: 28754024google scholar: lookup
  41. Vázquez-Calvo Á, Jiménez de Oya N, Martín-Acebes MA, Garcia-Moruno E, Saiz JC. Antiviral Properties of the Natural Polyphenols Delphinidin and Epigallocatechin Gallate against the Flaviviruses West Nile Virus, Zika Virus, and Dengue Virus. Front Microbiol 2017;8:1314.
    doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01314pubmed: 28744282google scholar: lookup
  42. Kiely P, Gambhir M, Cheng AC, McQuilten ZK, Seed CR, Wood EM. Emerging Infectious Diseases and Blood Safety: Modeling the Transfusion-Transmission Risk. Transfus Med Rev 2017 Jul;31(3):154-164.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tmrv.2017.05.002pubmed: 28545882google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,780 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.