FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Journal of veterinary internal medicine2026; 40(1); aalag017; doi: 10.1093/jvimsj/aalag017

Evaluation of oxidative stress and antioxidant defense biomarkers in healthy and colic horses: correlation with type of colic and outcome.

Abstract: Colic is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in horses, with oxidative stress implicated in its pathophysiology. Objective: Evaluate biomarkers (BIOs) of oxidative stress and antioxidant defense in healthy horses and those with non-strangulating colic (NSC) and strangulating colic (SC) and assess correlations with survival. Methods: Seventy-one adult horses: 10 healthy and 61 colic-affected (42 NSC, 19 SC) admitted to 3 veterinary teaching hospitals. Methods: Prospective, multicenter cohort study. Blood samples were collected at admission (T0) and up to 96 h post-admission. Biomarkers measured included arylesterase (AREase), paraoxonase (POase), lipid peroxidation (LPO), superoxide dismutase (SOD), butyrylcholinesterase, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). Data were analyzed using nonparametric statistics and generalized linear mixed models. Results: Compared with healthy horses, colic-affected horses had higher AREase (P = .01), GST (P = .001), and GPx (P = .001), and lower POase (P < .001) and TAC (P = .02). Survival was associated with higher AREase (coefficient [coef.] 106.65 kU/L; 95% confidence interval [CI], 24.70-188.60; P = .01), lower SOD (coef. -0.38 U/mL; 95%CI, -0.76 to -0.06; P = .03), and lower TAC (coef. -3.37 μmol/mL; 95%CI, -5.49 to -1.25; P = .01). Colic type also influenced results, with NSC (vs SC) associated with lower LPO (coef. -1.24 malondialdehyde [MDA]/μL; 95%CI, -2.81 to -0.32; P = .01), higher SOD (coef. 0.42; 95%CI, 0.03-0.81; P = .04), and higher TAC (coef. 1.21; 95%CI, 0.10-2.98; P = .04). Conclusions: Results emphasize the association between oxidative stress BIOs and colic in horses, suggesting that specific BIOs, particularly AREase, may have prognostic utility.
© The Author(s) 2026. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2026-02-26 PubMed ID: 41742576PubMed Central: PMC12906274DOI: 10.1093/jvimsj/aalag017Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Multicenter Study

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Overview

  • This study investigated oxidative stress and antioxidant defense biomarkers in healthy horses and horses suffering from two types of colic (non-strangulating and strangulating), aiming to understand their relationship with disease type and patient survival outcomes.

Introduction and Background

  • Colic is a significant medical condition in horses, leading to high rates of illness and death.
  • Oxidative stress, an imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants in the body, is thought to play a role in the development and progression of colic.
  • Understanding biomarkers related to oxidative stress and antioxidant defenses may help in diagnosing and predicting outcomes in horses with colic.

Study Objectives

  • Measure and compare oxidative stress and antioxidant biomarkers among healthy horses, horses with non-strangulating colic (NSC), and horses with strangulating colic (SC).
  • Determine correlations between these biomarkers and survival outcomes.
  • Assess whether specific biomarkers are associated with the type of colic.

Methods

  • Population: 71 adult horses total; 10 healthy, 61 with colic (42 NSC, 19 SC).
  • Setting: Horses admitted to three veterinary teaching hospitals.
  • Study Design: Prospective, multicenter cohort study.
  • Blood samples collected on admission (T0) and up to 96 hours after admission.
  • Measured biomarkers:
    • Arylesterase (AREase)
    • Paraoxonase (POase)
    • Lipid peroxidation (LPO) – measured by malondialdehyde (MDA) levels
    • Superoxide dismutase (SOD)
    • Butyrylcholinesterase
    • Total antioxidant capacity (TAC)
    • Glutathione S-transferase (GST)
    • Glutathione peroxidase (GPx)
  • Statistical analysis included nonparametric tests and generalized linear mixed models to assess differences and associations.

Key Results

  • Differences between healthy and colic horses:
    • Increased AREase, GST, and GPx in colic-affected horses (p-values 0.01, 0.001, and 0.001 respectively), indicating elevated antioxidant enzyme activities in response to colic.
    • Decreased POase and TAC in colic horses (p < 0.001 and 0.02), suggesting compromised paraoxonase activity and overall antioxidant capacity.
  • Associations with survival:
    • Higher AREase levels correlated with better survival (Coefficient 106.65 kU/L; p = 0.01), indicating this biomarker might be protective or reflect better physiological response.
    • Lower SOD (Coefficient -0.38 U/mL; p = 0.03) and lower TAC (Coefficient -3.37 μmol/mL; p = 0.01) were associated with survival, indicating that elevated oxidative stress markers may relate to worse outcomes.
  • Influence of colic type:
    • NSC was associated with lower lipid peroxidation (LPO) levels compared to SC (Coefficient -1.24 MDA/μL; p = 0.01), suggesting less oxidative damage in NSC.
    • NSC horses had higher SOD (Coefficient 0.42; p = 0.04) and higher TAC (Coefficient 1.21; p = 0.04) than SC horses, indicative of better antioxidant defense in NSC cases.

Conclusions and Implications

  • The study confirms oxidative stress biomarkers differ significantly between healthy horses and those with colic, and also vary with colic severity and type.
  • Some biomarkers, particularly arylesterase (AREase), may serve as useful prognostic indicators for survival in colic-affected horses.
  • Colic type influences oxidative stress and antioxidant responses, with strangulating colic showing more oxidative damage and weaker antioxidant defense compared to non-strangulating colic.
  • These findings suggest antioxidant biomarkers could help veterinarians assess prognosis and potentially guide therapeutic strategies in horses with colic.

Cite This Article

APA
Bindi F, de Marchi L, Elias-Cortajarena A, Sala G, Vitale V, Spadari A, Rinnovati R, Bonelli F, Sgorbini M. (2026). Evaluation of oxidative stress and antioxidant defense biomarkers in healthy and colic horses: correlation with type of colic and outcome. J Vet Intern Med, 40(1), aalag017. https://doi.org/10.1093/jvimsj/aalag017

Publication

Journal of veterinary internal medicine
ISSN: 1939-1676
NlmUniqueID: 8708660
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 40
Issue: 1
PII: aalag017

Researcher Affiliations

Bindi, Francesca
  • Department of Veterinary Science, University of Pisa, San Piero a Grado, Pisa 56122, Italy.
de Marchi, Lucia
  • Department of Veterinary Science, University of Pisa, San Piero a Grado, Pisa 56122, Italy.
Elias-Cortajarena, Ane
  • Hospital Clínico Veterinario, Universidad CEU-Cardenal Herrera, CEU Universities, Alfara del Patriarca, Valencia 46115, Spain.
Sala, Giulia
  • Department of Veterinary Science, University of Pisa, San Piero a Grado, Pisa 56122, Italy.
Vitale, Valentina
  • Hospital Clínico Veterinario, Universidad CEU-Cardenal Herrera, CEU Universities, Alfara del Patriarca, Valencia 46115, Spain.
Spadari, Alessandro
  • Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna 40064, Italy.
Rinnovati, Riccardo
  • Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna 40064, Italy.
Bonelli, Francesca
  • Department of Veterinary Science, University of Pisa, San Piero a Grado, Pisa 56122, Italy.
Sgorbini, Micaela
  • Department of Veterinary Science, University of Pisa, San Piero a Grado, Pisa 56122, Italy.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Horses
  • Horse Diseases / blood
  • Horse Diseases / metabolism
  • Biomarkers / blood
  • Oxidative Stress / physiology
  • Colic / veterinary
  • Colic / blood
  • Colic / metabolism
  • Male
  • Female
  • Antioxidants / metabolism
  • Prospective Studies
  • Aryldialkylphosphatase / blood
  • Superoxide Dismutase / blood
  • Carboxylic Ester Hydrolases / blood
  • Lipid Peroxidation

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

This article includes 60 references
  1. Trim CM, Shepard MK. Horses with colic. Wiley; 2015:867-885.
  2. Souto PC, da FLA, Orozco AMO. Acute-phase proteins of healthy horses and horses naturally affected by colic syndrome. J Equine Vet Sci 2019;80:1–4.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2019.06.002pubmed: 31443825google scholar: lookup
  3. Bonelli F, Meucci V, Divers TJ. Plasma Procalcitonin concentration in healthy horses and horses affected by systemic inflammatory response syndrome. J Vet Intern Med 2015;29:1689–1691.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.13640pmc: PMC4895682pubmed: 26474412google scholar: lookup
  4. Grosche A, Morton AJ, Graham AS. Ultrastructural changes in the equine colonic mucosa after ischaemia and reperfusion. Equine Vet J Suppl 2011;43:8–15.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2011.00402.xpubmed: 21790749google scholar: lookup
  5. Palmieri B, Sblendorio V. Oxidative stress tests: overview on reliability and use. Part I. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2007;11:309–342.
    pubmed: 18074940
  6. Radakovic M, Davitkov D, Borozan S. Oxidative stress and DNA damage in horses naturally infected with. Vet J 2016;217:112–118.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2016.10.003pubmed: 27810201google scholar: lookup
  7. Scavone D, Sgorbini M, Borges AS, Oliveira-Filho JP, Vitale V, Paltrinieri S. Serial measurements of paraoxonase-1 (PON-1) activity in horses with experimentally induced endotoxemia. BMC Vet Res 2020;16:422.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-020-02629-4pmc: PMC7641807pubmed: 33148245google scholar: lookup
  8. Ruggerone B, Paltrinieri S, Giordano A. Paraoxonase-1 activity evaluation as a diagnostic and prognostic marker in horses and foals. J Vet Intern Med 2020;34:949–954.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.15722pmc: PMC7096640pubmed: 32154619google scholar: lookup
  9. Haghnazari L, Vaisi-Raygani A, Keshvarzi F. Effect of acetylcholinesterase and Butyrylcholinesterase on intrauterine insemination, contribution to inflammations, oxidative stress and antioxidant status; a preliminary report. J Reprod Infertil 2016;17:157–162.
    pmc: PMC4947203pubmed: 27478769
  10. Ibrahim HMM. Oxidative stress associated with spasmodic, flatulent, and impaction colic in draft horses. J Equine Vet Sci 2014;34:1205–1210.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2014.08.002google scholar: lookup
  11. El-Ashker MR, El-Khodery SA, El-Boshy ME, Mohamed AM. Prognostic significance of lipid peroxide and antioxidant levels in draft horses with peritonitis. Comp Clin Path 2011;20:433–439.
    doi: 10.1007/s00580-010-1013-6google scholar: lookup
  12. El-Deeb W, Fayez M, Elsohaby I, Mkrtchyan HV, Alhaider A. Changes in blood biomarkers in Arabian horses with -induced enterocolitis. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2020;73:101525.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cimid.2020.101525pubmed: 32877870google scholar: lookup
  13. El-Ashker M, El-Khodery S, Metwally N, Hussein H, El-Boshy M. Prognostic significance of oxidative stress markers in colitis associated with phenylbutazone administration in draft horses. J Equine Vet Sci 2012;32:146–152.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2011.08.008google scholar: lookup
  14. Shawaf T, El-Deeb WM, Elgioushy M. The contribution of specific and nonspecific biomarkers in diagnosis of equine gastric ulcer syndrome (EGUS) under field condition. J Equine Vet Sci 2020;84:102853.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2019.102853pubmed: 31864460google scholar: lookup
  15. Khurana S, Corbally MT, Manning F, Armenise T, Kierce B, Kilty C. Glutathione S-transferase: a potential new marker of intestinal ischemia. J Pediatr Surg 2002;37:1543–1548.
    doi: 10.1053/jpsu.2002.36181pubmed: 12407536google scholar: lookup
  16. Delaney CP, O’Neill S, Manning F, Fitzpatrick JM, Gorey TF. Plasma concentrations of glutathione S-transferase isoenzyme are raised in patients with intestinal ischaemia.. Br J Surg 1999;86:1349–1353.
    doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2168.1999.01245.xpubmed: 10540149google scholar: lookup
  17. Gearhart SL, Delaney CP, Senagore AJ. Prospective assessment of the predictive value of alpha-glutathione S-transferase for intestinal ischemia.. Am Surg 2003;69:324–329, discussion 329.
    doi: 10.1177/000313480306900409pubmed: 12716091google scholar: lookup
  18. Niedźwiedź A, Nicpoń J, Zawadzki M, Służewska-Niedźwiedź M, Januszewska L. The influence of road transport on the activities of glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione-S-transferase in equine erythrocytes.. Vet Clin Pathol 2012;41:123–126.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1939-165X.2011.00396.xpubmed: 22260732google scholar: lookup
  19. Williams CA, Kronfeld DS, Hess TM. Antioxidant supplementation and subsequent oxidative stress of horses during an 80-km endurance race.. J Anim Sci 2004;82:588–594.
    doi: 10.2527/2004.822588xpubmed: 14974559google scholar: lookup
  20. Hargreaves BJ, Kronfeld DS, Lopes MA. Antioxidant status of horses during two 80-km endurance races.. J Nutr 2002;132:1781S–1783S.
    doi: 10.1093/jn/132.6.1781Spubmed: 12042527google scholar: lookup
  21. Desrochers A, White II NA. Diagnostic approach to colic.. 2017:221–262.
    doi: 10.1002/9781119063254.ch20google scholar: lookup
  22. Roy MF, Kwong GPS, Lambert J, Massie S, Lockhart S. Prognostic value and development of a scoring system in horses with systemic inflammatory response syndrome.. J Vet Intern Med 2017;31:582–592.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.14670pmc: PMC5354005pubmed: 28207163google scholar: lookup
  23. Dias C, Marinho A, Morello J. Monitoring of the lactonase activity of paraoxonase-1 enzyme in HIV-1-infection.. J Int AIDS Soc 2014;17:19682.
    doi: 10.7448/IAS.17.4.19682pmc: PMC4225321pubmed: 25397432google scholar: lookup
  24. Buege JA, Aust SD. Microsomal lipid peroxidation.. Methods Enzymol 1978;52:302–310.
    doi: 10.1016/S0076-6879(78)52032-6pubmed: 672633google scholar: lookup
  25. McCord JM, Fridovich I. Superoxide dismutase. An enzymic function for erythrocuprein (hemocuprein).. J Biol Chem 1969;244:6049–6055.
    pubmed: 5389100
  26. Ellman GL, Courtney KD, Andres V, Featherstone RM. A new and rapid colorimetric determination of acetylcholinesterase activity.. Biochem Pharmacol 1961;7:88–95.
    doi: 10.1016/0006-2952(61)90145-9pubmed: 13726518google scholar: lookup
  27. Benzie IFF, Strain JJ. The ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) as a measure of “antioxidant power”: the FRAP assay.. Anal Biochem 1996;239:70–76.
    doi: 10.1006/abio.1996.0292pubmed: 8660627google scholar: lookup
  28. Habig WH, Pabst MJ, Jakoby WB. Glutathione S-transferases. The first enzymatic step in mercapturic acid formation.. J Biol Chem 1974;249:7130–7139.
    doi: 10.1016/S0021-9258(19)42083-8pubmed: 4436300google scholar: lookup
  29. Paglia DE, Valentine WN. Studies on the quantitative and qualitative characterization of erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase.. J Lab Clin Med 1967;70:158–169.
    pubmed: 6066618
  30. Lawrence RA, Burk RF. Glutathione peroxidase activity in selenium-deficient rat liver.. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1976;71:952–958.
    doi: 10.1016/0006-291x(76)90747-6pubmed: 971321google scholar: lookup
  31. OliverH L, NiraJ R, Farr AL, RoseJ R. Protein measurement with the Folin phenol reagent. J Biol Chem 1951;193:265–275.
    doi: 10.1016/S0021-9258(19)52451-6pubmed: 14907713google scholar: lookup
  32. Ludwig EK, Hobbs KJ, McKinney-Aguirre CA, Gonzalez LM. Biomarkers of intestinal injury in colic. Animals 2023;13:227.
    doi: 10.3390/ani13020227pmc: PMC9854801pubmed: 36670767google scholar: lookup
  33. Delesalle C, Dewulf J, Lefebvre RA. Determination of lactate concentrations in blood plasma and peritoneal fluid in horses with colic by an Accusport analyzer. J Vet Intern Med 2007;21:293–301.
    doi: 10.1892/0891-6640(2007)21[293:dolcib]2.0.co;2pubmed: 17427391google scholar: lookup
  34. Radcliffe RM, Divers TJ, Fletcher DJ, Mohammed H, Kraus MS. Evaluation of L-lactate and cardiac troponin I in horses undergoing emergency abdominal surgery. J Vet Emerg Crit Care 2012;22:313–319.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1476-4431.2012.00744.xpubmed: 22702437google scholar: lookup
  35. Smanik LE, Moser DK, Rothers KP, Hackett ES. Serial venous lactate measurement following gastrointestinal surgery in horses. J Vet Sci 2022;23:e66.
    doi: 10.4142/jvs.22038pmc: PMC9523334pubmed: 36038187google scholar: lookup
  36. Tennent-Brown BS, Wilkins PA, Lindborg S, Russell G, Boston RC. Sequential plasma lactate concentrations as prognostic indicators in adult equine emergencies. J Vet Intern Med 2010;24:198–205.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2009.0419.xpubmed: 19925572google scholar: lookup
  37. Yamout SZ, Nieto JE, Beldomenico PM, Dechant JE, leJeune S, Snyder JR. Peritoneal and plasma D-lactate concentrations in horses with colic. Vet Surg 2011;40:817–824.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1532-950X.2011.00859.xpubmed: 21815898google scholar: lookup
  38. Oran M, Tulubas F, Mete R, Aydin M, Sarikaya HG, Gurel A. Evaluation of paraoxonase and arylesterase activities in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. J Pak Med Assoc 2014;64:820–822.
    pubmed: 25255593
  39. Meisinger C, Freuer D, Bub A, Linseisen J. Association between inflammatory markers and serum paraoxonase and arylesterase activities in the general population: a cross-sectional study. Lipids Health Dis 2021;20:81.
    doi: 10.1186/s12944-021-01508-7pmc: PMC8325814pubmed: 34332593google scholar: lookup
  40. Taha NM, El-Noeman SA, Korshom MS, Wahab MA, El-Feky M. Effect of mange infestation on paraoxonase 1 activity in camel. J Camel Pract Res 2010;17:45–49.
  41. Taha N, Mandour A, Lebda M, Ghareeb D, E AA. Bovine paraoxonase-1 activity in oxidative stress. Alex J Vet Sci 2016;51:233.
    doi: 10.5455/ajvs.229270google scholar: lookup
  42. Michalak S, Kazmierski R, Hellmann A. Serum paraoxonase/arylesterase activity affects outcome in ischemic stroke patients. Cerebrovasc Dis 2011;32:124–132.
    doi: 10.1159/000328227pubmed: 21778709google scholar: lookup
  43. Watson AD, Berliner JA, Hama SY. Protective effect of high density lipoprotein associated paraoxonase. Inhibition of the biological activity of minimally oxidized low density lipoprotein. J Clin Investig 1995;96:2882–2891.
    doi: 10.1172/JCI118359pmc: PMC185999pubmed: 8675659google scholar: lookup
  44. Unal E, Eris C, Kaya B. Paraoxonase and arylesterase activities, lipid profile, and oxidative damage in experimental ischemic colitis model. Gastroenterol Res Pract 2012;2012:1–5.
    doi: 10.1155/2012/979506pmc: PMC3503333pubmed: 23197980google scholar: lookup
  45. Li C, Chen JW, Ding FH. Relationship of high-density lipoprotein-associated arylesterase activity to systolic heart failure in patients with and without type 2 diabetes. Sci Rep 2019;9:5979.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-42518-xpmc: PMC6461629pubmed: 30979955google scholar: lookup
  46. Vernaccini M, Meucci V, Bindi F. PON1 enzyme activity assays for serum and heparinized plasma in horses and stability evaluation of the enzyme activity over different freeze-thaw cycles and mimic transportation. Res Vet Sci 2024;177:105352.
    doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2024.105352pubmed: 38996659google scholar: lookup
  47. Ruggerone B, Bonelli F, Nocera I, Paltrinieri S, Giordano A, Sgorbini M. Validation of a paraoxon-based method for measurement of paraoxonase (PON-1) activity and establishment of RIs in horses. Vet Clin Pathol 2018;47:69–77.
    doi: 10.1111/vcp.12562pubmed: 29575140google scholar: lookup
  48. Winther MF, Johnsson J, Madsen PK. The use of serum paraoxonase-1 to assess inflammation in horses with colitis. Vet Clin Pathol 2024;53:358–368.
    doi: 10.1111/vcp.13372pubmed: 39034301google scholar: lookup
  49. Hajimohammadi A, Ghane M, Ghari Tehrani M. Association of the severity of colic in horses with oxidative stress biomarkers, acute-phase proteins, and certain trace elements. J Equine Sci 2023;34:2304.
    doi: 10.1294/jes.34.73pmc: PMC10534060pubmed: 37781567google scholar: lookup
  50. Bolfă PF, Leroux C, Pintea A. Oxidant–antioxidant imbalance in horses infected with equine infectious anaemia virus. Vet J 2012;192:449–454.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.08.029pubmed: 21962828google scholar: lookup
  51. Niroomandi E, Maleki S, Abdollahpour G, Zakian A, Ahmadvand H. The effect of natural infection with different serovars on oxidative stress biomarkers and acute-phase responses in horses and cattle. Vet Clin Pathol 2022;51:84–92.
    doi: 10.1111/vcp.13042pubmed: 35179227google scholar: lookup
  52. El-Bahr SM, El-Deeb WM. Acute-phase proteins, oxidative stress biomarkers, proinflammatory cytokines, and cardiac troponin in Arabian mares affected with pyometra. Theriogenology 2016;86:1132–1136.
    doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2016.04.002pubmed: 27177966google scholar: lookup
  53. El-Deeb WM, El-Bahr SM. Investigation of selected biochemical indicators of equine rhabdomyolysis in Arabian horses: pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress markers. Vet Res Commun 2010;34:677–689.
    doi: 10.1007/s11259-010-9439-5pubmed: 20830520google scholar: lookup
  54. Costantini D, Verhulst S. Does high antioxidant capacity indicate low oxidative stress?. Funct Ecol 2009;23:506–509.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2009.01546.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  55. Silvestrini A, Mancini A. The double-edged sword of total antioxidant capacity: clinical significance and personal experience. Antioxidants 2024;13:933.
    doi: 10.3390/antiox13080933pmc: PMC11351343pubmed: 39199179google scholar: lookup
  56. Niedźwiedź A, Kubiak K, Nicpoń J. Plasma total antioxidant status in horses after 8-hours of road transportation. Acta Vet Scand 2013;55:58.
    doi: 10.1186/1751-0147-55-58pmc: PMC3751896pubmed: 23945316google scholar: lookup
  57. Alnasser SM. The role of glutathione S-transferases in human disease pathogenesis and their current inhibitors. Genes Dis 2025;12:101482.
    doi: 10.1016/j.gendis.2024.101482pmc: PMC12022661pubmed: 40290119google scholar: lookup
  58. Pei J, Pan X, Wei G, Hua Y. Research progress of glutathione peroxidase family (GPX) in redoxidation. Front Pharmacol 2023;14.
    doi: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1147414pmc: PMC10017475pubmed: 36937839google scholar: lookup
  59. Kinnunen S, Atalay M, Hyyppä S, Lehmuskero A, Hänninen O, Oksala N. Effects of prolonged exercise on oxidative stress and antioxidant defense in endurance horse. J Sports Sci Med 2005;4:415–421.
    pmc: PMC3899657pubmed: 24501555
  60. Bentes de Souza AM, Rogers MS, Wang CC, Yuen PM, Ng PS. Comparison of peritoneal oxidative stress during laparoscopy and laparotomy. J Am Assoc Gynecol Laparosc 2003;10:65–74.
    doi: 10.1016/s1074-3804(05)60237-xpubmed: 12554997google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 100,127 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.