FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Animals : an open access journal from MDPI2025; 16(1); 103; doi: 10.3390/ani16010103

Group and Individual Changes in Spinal Mobility During a 12-Week Rehabilitation Program Including Swimming in Horses with Axial Musculoskeletal Lesions.

Abstract: Locomotor disorders involving the spine are a major cause of impaired performance and early retirement in sport horses. Swimming is increasingly incorporated into rehabilitation protocols, but its effects on spinal biomechanics remain poorly understood. This prospective study evaluated changes in thoracolumbar mobility in sixteen sport horses diagnosed with cervical or thoracolumbar axial musculoskeletal lesions over a 12-week rehabilitation program comprising 4 weeks of land-based training followed by 8 weeks during which swimming sessions were incorporated three times per week. Weekly measurements of thoracolumbar flexion-extension range of motion (ROM) were performed during straight-line trot on a hard surface using inertial measurement units attached to the withers, T18, and tubera sacrale. Group-level analyses revealed minimal changes across training phases: in horses with thoracolumbar lesions, mean ROM decreased slightly during the second month of aquatic training (-0.1° [95% CI -0.1; 0], Cohen's d = 0.2), whereas no significant variation was detected in horses with cervical lesions. As the study did not include a control group, these temporal changes cannot be specifically attributed to swimming and should be interpreted as descriptive rather than causal. Individual trajectories showed heterogeneous patterns, but these were not consistent enough to alter the group-level interpretation. Overall, the findings suggest that thoracolumbar mobility remains relatively stable throughout this type of rehabilitation program, highlighting the importance of individualized monitoring rather than the expectation of a uniform biomechanical response.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2025-12-30 PubMed ID: 41514790PubMed Central: PMC12784998DOI: 10.3390/ani16010103Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Overview

  • This study investigated how a 12-week rehabilitation program that includes swimming affects spinal mobility in sport horses with axial musculoskeletal lesions.
  • The key finding was that spinal mobility remained mostly stable during the rehabilitation, showing little uniform change across horses.

Background and Purpose

  • Locomotor disorders affecting the spine are a common issue leading to impaired performance and early retirement in sport horses.
  • Swimming is increasingly used in rehabilitation but its biomechanical effects on the equine spine are not well understood.
  • The study aimed to evaluate how thoracolumbar (mid to lower back) spinal mobility changes throughout a rehabilitation program incorporating both land-based training and swimming.

Study Design and Methods

  • Sixteen sport horses with diagnosed cervical (neck) or thoracolumbar (mid-back) musculoskeletal lesions were enrolled.
  • The rehabilitation lasted 12 weeks, divided into:
    • 4 weeks of land-based training alone
    • 8 weeks of training that incorporated swimming sessions three times per week
  • Weekly evaluations of thoracolumbar flexion-extension range of motion (ROM) were done during a straight-line trot on a hard surface.
  • Inertial measurement units (IMUs) were attached at key spinal locations — the withers, T18 vertebra, and tubera sacrale — to record precise spinal movement data.
  • No control group (horses undergoing rehab without swimming) was included, which means comparisons over time are descriptive rather than causal.

Results

  • At the group level:
    • In horses with thoracolumbar lesions, mean spinal ROM slightly decreased during the second month of swimming (-0.1 degrees; statistically minimal, Cohen’s d = 0.2 indicating a small effect size).
    • Horses with cervical lesions showed no significant changes in spinal mobility across the program.
  • Individual horses showed heterogeneous and varied mobility trajectories with no consistent pattern sufficient to affect group-level conclusions.

Interpretation and Conclusion

  • The spinal mobility of sport horses with axial musculoskeletal lesions remains relatively stable during a rehabilitation program that includes swimming.
  • The minimal changes found were insufficient to conclusively attribute any effect specifically to swimming due to the lack of a control group.
  • The wide variability between individual horses highlights the need for individualized monitoring in rehabilitation rather than expecting uniform biomechanical improvements from swimming.
  • Swimming can therefore be considered a safe adjunctive therapy concerning spinal mobility but may not significantly alter spinal biomechanics during rehabilitation.

Implications for Practice

  • Practitioners should note the generally stable spinal ROM during swimming-based rehabilitation but monitor horses individually.
  • Rehabilitation protocols may need tailoring to each horse’s unique response rather than relying on group averages.
  • Future research including control groups and larger samples could clarify swimming’s causal effects on equine spinal biomechanics.

Cite This Article

APA
Pécresse B, Moiroud C, Hanne-Poujade S, Hatrisse C, De Azevedo E, Coudry V, Jacquet S, Audigié F, Chateau H. (2025). Group and Individual Changes in Spinal Mobility During a 12-Week Rehabilitation Program Including Swimming in Horses with Axial Musculoskeletal Lesions. Animals (Basel), 16(1), 103. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16010103

Publication

Animals : an open access journal from MDPI
ISSN: 2076-2615
NlmUniqueID: 101635614
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 16
Issue: 1
PII: 103

Researcher Affiliations

Pécresse, Baptiste
  • ACAP3, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, F-14430 Goustranville, France.
Moiroud, Claire
  • ACAP3, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, F-14430 Goustranville, France.
Hanne-Poujade, Sandrine
  • Labcom LIM-ENVA, LIM Group, F-24300 Nontron, France.
Hatrisse, Chloé
  • ACAP3, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, F-14430 Goustranville, France.
  • Labcom LIM-ENVA, LIM Group, F-24300 Nontron, France.
De Azevedo, Emeline
  • ACAP3, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, F-14430 Goustranville, France.
Coudry, Virginie
  • ACAP3, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, F-14430 Goustranville, France.
Jacquet, Sandrine
  • ACAP3, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, F-14430 Goustranville, France.
Audigié, Fabrice
  • ACAP3, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, F-14430 Goustranville, France.
Chateau, Henry
  • ACAP3, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, F-14430 Goustranville, France.
  • Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, F-94700 Maisons-Alfort, France.

Grant Funding

  • ANR-20-CE19-0016 / French National Research Agency (Agence Nationale de la Recherche, ANR)

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest. Sandrine Hanne-Poujade and Chloé Hatrisse are affiliated with the Labcom LIM-ENVA, a joint laboratory between the École nationale vétérinaire d’Alfort and the LIM Group; however, no commercial interest related to the LIM Group influenced the present study. The funders, the French National Research Agency (Agence Nationale de la Recherche, ANR), had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analysis, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

References

This article includes 40 references
  1. Lam KH, Parkin TDH, Riggs CM, Morgan KL. Descriptive analysis of retirement of Thoroughbred racehorses due to tendon injuries at the Hong Kong Jockey Club (1992–2004). Equine Vet. J. 2007;39:143–148.
    doi: 10.2746/042516407X159132pubmed: 17378443google scholar: lookup
  2. Munsters CCBM, van den Broek J, Welling E, van Weeren R, van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan MMS. A prospective study on a cohort of horses and ponies selected for participation in the European Eventing Championship: Reasons for withdrawal and predictive value of fitness tests. BMC Vet. Res. 2013;9:182.
    doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-9-182pmc: PMC3848563pubmed: 24034152google scholar: lookup
  3. Shrestha K, Gilkerson JR, Stevenson MA, Flash ML. Drivers of exit and outcomes for Thoroughbred racehorses participating in the 2017–2018 Australian racing season. PLoS ONE 2021;16:e0257581.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0257581pmc: PMC8454983pubmed: 34547036google scholar: lookup
  4. Kaneps AJ. Practical Rehabilitation and Physical Therapy for the General Equine Practitioner. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 2016;32:167–180.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2015.12.001pubmed: 26898959google scholar: lookup
  5. Atalaia T, Prazeres J, Abrantes J, Clayton HM. Equine Rehabilitation: A Scoping Review of the Literature. Animals 2021;11:1508.
    doi: 10.3390/ani11061508pmc: PMC8224607pubmed: 34067449google scholar: lookup
  6. Irwin DHG, Howell DW. Some thoughts on swimming horses in a pool. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 1980;51:189–191.
    pubmed: 7265088
  7. Murakami M, Imahara T, Inui T, Amada A, Senta T, Takagi S, Kubo K, Sugimoto O, Watanabe H, Ikeda S. Swimming Exercises in Horses. Exp. Rep. Equine Health Lab. 1976;1976:27–49.
    doi: 10.11535/jes1961.1976.27google scholar: lookup
  8. Santosuosso E, Leguillette R, Vinardell T, Filho S, Massie S, McCrae P, Johnson S, Rolian C, David F. Kinematic Analysis During Straight Line Free Swimming in Horses: Part 1—Forelimbs. Front. Vet. Sci. 2021;8:752375.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.752375pmc: PMC8553013pubmed: 34722709google scholar: lookup
  9. Young A. Healing Waters?. Horse Report—School of Veterinary Medicine—University of California 2022.
  10. Gaulmin P, Marin F, Moiroud C, Beaumont A, Jacquet S, De Azevedo E, Martin P, Audigié F, Chateau H, Giraudet C. Description and Analysis of Horse Swimming Strategies in a U-Shaped Pool. Animals 2025;15:195.
    doi: 10.3390/ani15020195pmc: PMC11758662pubmed: 39858195google scholar: lookup
  11. Giraudet C, Moiroud C, Beaumont A, Gaulmin P, Hatrisse C, Azevedo E, Denoix JM, Ben Mansour K, Martin P, Audigié F. Development of a Methodology for Low-Cost 3D Underwater Motion Capture: Application to the Biomechanics of Horse Swimming. Sensors 2023;23:8832.
    doi: 10.3390/s23218832pmc: PMC10647488pubmed: 37960531google scholar: lookup
  12. King MR. Principles and Application of Hydrotherapy for Equine Athletes. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 2016;32:115–126.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2015.12.008pubmed: 26898962google scholar: lookup
  13. Tokuriki M, Ohtsuki R, Kal M, Hiraga A, Oki H, Miyahara Y, Aoki O. EMG activity of the muscles of the neck and forelimbs during different forms of locomotion. Equine Vet. J. Suppl. 1999;30:231–234.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05224.xpubmed: 10659258google scholar: lookup
  14. Porter M. Equine Rehabilitation Therapy for Joint Disease. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 2005;21:599–607.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2005.08.002pubmed: 16297723google scholar: lookup
  15. Kamioka H, Tsutani K, Okuizumi H, Mutoh Y, Ohta M, Handa S, Okada S, Kitayuguchi J, Kamada M, Shiozawa N. Effectiveness of aquatic exercise and balneotherapy: A summary of systematic reviews based on randomized controlled trials of water immersion therapies. J. Epidemiol. 2010;20:2–12.
    doi: 10.2188/jea.JE20090030pmc: PMC3900774pubmed: 19881230google scholar: lookup
  16. Muñoz A, Saitua A, Becero M, Riber C, Satué K, de Medina AS, Argüelles D, Castejón-Riber C. The Use of the Water Treadmill for the Rehabilitation of Musculoskeletal Injuries in the Sport Horse. J. Vet. Res. 2019;63:439–445.
    doi: 10.2478/jvetres-2019-0050pmc: PMC6749732pubmed: 31572826google scholar: lookup
  17. Klomp M. Swimming exercise and race performance in Thoroughbred racehorses. Pferdeheilkunde Equine Med. 2014;30:403–406.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20140405google scholar: lookup
  18. Misumi K, Sakamoto H, Shimizu R. The validity of swimming training for two-year-old thoroughbreds. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 1994;56:217–222.
    doi: 10.1292/jvms.56.217pubmed: 8075207google scholar: lookup
  19. Coudry V, Thibaud D, Riccio B, Audigié F, Didierlaurent D, Denoix JM. Efficacy of tiludronate in the treatment of horses with signs of pain associated with osteoarthritic lesions of the thoracolumbar vertebral column. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2007;68:329–337.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.68.3.329pubmed: 17331024google scholar: lookup
  20. Maldonado MD, Parkinson SD, Story MR, Haussler KK. The Effect of Chiropractic Treatment on Limb Lameness and Concurrent Axial Skeleton Pain and Dysfunction in Horses. Animals 2022;12:2845.
    doi: 10.3390/ani12202845pmc: PMC9597761pubmed: 36290230google scholar: lookup
  21. Geiger T, Lindenhahn L, Delarocque J, Geburek F. Evaluation of water treadmill training, lunging and treadmill training in the rehabilitation of horses with back pain. BMC Vet. Res. 2025;21:495.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-025-04950-2pmc: PMC12305931pubmed: 40731015google scholar: lookup
  22. Egenvall A, Engström H, Byström A. Back motion in unridden horses in walk, trot and canter on a circle. Vet. Res. Commun. 2023;47:1831–1843.
    doi: 10.1007/s11259-023-10132-ypmc: PMC10698108pubmed: 37127806google scholar: lookup
  23. Hardeman AM, Byström A, Roepstorff L, Swagemakers JH, Van Weeren PR, Bragança FMS. Range of motion and between-measurement variation of spinal kinematics in sound horses at trot on the straight line and on the lunge. PLoS ONE 2020;15:e0222822.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0222822pmc: PMC7041811pubmed: 32097432google scholar: lookup
  24. Hatrisse C, Macaire C, Hebert C, Hanne-Poujade S, De Azevedo E, Audigié F, Ben Mansour K, Marin F, Martin P, Mezghani N. A Method for Quantifying Back Flexion/Extension from Three Inertial Measurement Units Mounted on a Horse’s Withers, Thoracolumbar Region, and Pelvis. Sensors 2023;23:9625.
    doi: 10.3390/s23249625pmc: PMC10747348pubmed: 38139471google scholar: lookup
  25. MacKechnie-Guire R, Pfau T. Differential Rotational Movement of the Thoracolumbosacral Spine in High-Level Dressage Horses Ridden in a Straight Line, in Sitting Trot and Seated Canter Compared to In-Hand Trot. Animals 2021;11:888.
    doi: 10.3390/ani11030888pmc: PMC8003829pubmed: 33804702google scholar: lookup
  26. Audigie F, Coudry V, Jacquet S, Poupot M, Denoix JM. Diagnostic par imagerie des lésions de la région thoracolombaire chez le cheval. Bull. Acad. Vet. Fr. 2013;166:338–344.
    doi: 10.4267/2042/53060google scholar: lookup
  27. . MATLAB Documentation. .
  28. Pinheiro J, Bates D. Mixed-Effects Models in S and S-PLUS. Statistics and Computing Springer; New York, NY, USA: 2014; pp. 101–110.
  29. Jaccard J, Becker MA, Wood G. Pairwise multiple comparison procedures: A review. Psychol. Bull. 1984;96:589–596.
    doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.96.3.589google scholar: lookup
  30. Cohen J. A power primer. Psychol. Bull. 1992;112:155–159.
    doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155pubmed: 19565683google scholar: lookup
  31. R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. 2024.
  32. Kuznetsova A, Brockhoff PB, Christensen RHB. lmerTest Package: Tests in Linear Mixed Effects Models. J. Stat. Softw. 2017;82:1–26.
    doi: 10.18637/jss.v082.i13google scholar: lookup
  33. Gómez Álvarez CBG, Rhodin M, Bobbert MF, Meyer H, Weishaupt MA, Johnston C, Weeren PR. The effect of head and neck position on the thoracolumbar kinematics in the unridden horse. Equine Vet. J. 2006;38:445–451.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2006.tb05585.xpubmed: 17402464google scholar: lookup
  34. Rhodin M, Johnston C, Holm KR, Wennerstrand J, Drevemo S. The influence of head and neck position on kinematics of the back in riding horses at the walk and trot. Equine Vet. J. 2005;37:7–11.
    doi: 10.2746/0425164054406928pubmed: 15651727google scholar: lookup
  35. Wennerstrand J, Johnston C, Roethlisberger-Holm K, Erichsen C, Eksell P, Drevemo S. Kinematic evaluation of the back in the sport horse with back pain. Equine Vet. J. 2004;36:707–713.
    doi: 10.2746/0425164044848226pubmed: 15656501google scholar: lookup
  36. Licka TF, Peham C, Frey R. Electromyographic activity of the longissimus dorsi muscles in horses during trotting on a treadmill. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2004;65:155–158.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2004.65.155pubmed: 14974571google scholar: lookup
  37. Williams JM. Electromyography in the horse: A useful technology?. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2018;60:43–58.e2.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2017.02.005google scholar: lookup
  38. Tabor G, Williams JM. Equine rehabilitation: A review of trunk and hind limb muscle activity and exercise selection. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2018;60:97–103.e3.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2017.03.003google scholar: lookup
  39. Faber M, Johnston C, van Weeren PR, Barneveld A. Repeatability of back kinematics in horses during treadmill locomotion. Equine Vet. J. 2002;34:235–241.
    doi: 10.2746/042516402776186010pubmed: 12108740google scholar: lookup
  40. Greve L, Pfau T, Dyson S. Thoracolumbar movement in sound horses trotting in straight lines in hand and on the lunge and the relationship with hind limb symmetry or asymmetry. Vet. J. 2017;220:95–104.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2017.01.003pubmed: 28190505google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 100,113 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.