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Topic:Longitudinal Study
A longitudinal study in the context of equine research involves the systematic observation and data collection from the same group of horses over an extended period. This research approach aims to track changes and developments in various health parameters, behaviors, or conditions within the equine population being studied. By repeatedly assessing the same subjects, researchers can identify patterns, establish temporal sequences, and infer potential causal relationships. Longitudinal studies in horses can encompass a wide range of topics, including growth and development, disease progression, and the impact of environmental or management changes. This page gathers peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the methodologies, findings, and implications of longitudinal studies in equine science.
Antibody kinetics against tetanus toxoid before and after primary vaccination of foals. Vaccination recommendations for foals against Clostridium tetani vary. Available studies assessing foal immune responses, maternal antibody interference, or individual variation often used small foal numbers. Objective: To quantify antibody responses after tetanus vaccination in foals and explore associations with passively transferred tetanus antibodies. Methods: Longitudinal cohort study. Methods: Sixty-two Warmblood foals from a single stud farm were followed from birth to 360 days of age. Foals received tetanus vaccinations at day 180 (d180) and d220 of life. Serum samples were collected...
Pulsed wave tissue Doppler imaging of the left ventricle in foals: Feasibility, inter- and intra-observer variability and wave pattern over the first days of life. Tissue Doppler imaging (TDI) may improve the assessment of myocardial function in neonatal foals. Objective: To document the feasibility of left ventricular pulsed wave (PW) TDI, inter- and intra-observer variability and wave pattern over the first 5 days of life. Methods: Prospective observational study. Methods: Transthoracic echocardiography was performed in 25 healthy Standardbred foals within the first 24 h after birth (T1), between 60-84 h (T2), and 108-132 h (T3) after birth using right parasternal short-axis (R-LV SAX) and subcostal long-axis views at the mitral annulus, both a...
Intrauterine ozone therapy reduces bacterial load in mares with mixed bacterial endometritis: a longitudinal study. Mixed bacterial endometritis poses a therapeutic challenge in mares due to the coexistence of multiple pathogens with divergent antimicrobial susceptibility profiles. This study evaluated the effects of intrauterine ozone insufflation on uterine bacterial load and endometrial inflammatory response in mares with naturally acquired mixed bacterial endometritis. Fifteen mares with mixed bacterial infection were allocated to two treatment groups: a pathological control group receiving pure medical oxygen insufflation (PC; n = 6) and an ozone-treated group receiving 42 µg/mL ozone for three c...
Evaluation of Microvascular Flow Imaging and Power Doppler Ultrasonography in an Equine Model of Induced Superficial Digital Flexor Tendonitis. Superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) injuries are common in athletic horses and are associated with prolonged healing and high reinjury rates. Conventional ultrasonography provides structural information but limited physiologic assessment. This study compared microvascular imaging (MVI) and Power Doppler (PD) for evaluating vascular changes in a collagenase-induced equine SDFT injury model and assessed the effect of scanning technique on vascular signal detection. Eight adult Thoroughbred horses underwent bilateral collagenase-induced SDFT injury, with one forelimb randomly assigned to int...
Longitudinal and spatial declines in equine Hendra virus vaccination despite continued risk. Hendra virus is an emerging zoonosis endemic to Australia with high fatality of infection in horses and humans. The role of infected domestic horses as amplifying bridge hosts for onward transmission to humans led to the creation of an equine vaccine as a One Health solution against spillover. Despite the risk this disease represents, previously reported equine vaccination rates were low. This study explored vaccination trends between 2012 and 2023 at fine spatial scales and identified demographic and ecological predictors of vaccination against emerging zoonoses. Over 1 million doses of Equiv...
Single-stage orthognathic correction of campylorrhinus lateralis in foals using transection and fixation: Surgical description and outcome of four horses. Campylorrhinus lateralis ('wry nose') is a rare congenital maxillofacial deformity of foals resulting in compromise of the airway and severe class 4 malocclusion. Various surgical techniques to correct the deformity have been described, but contemporary data on single-stage transection and fixation, including use of a rib graft, and long-term functional and cosmetic outcomes remain underreported. Objective: To describe the transection-and-fixation technique and perioperative management used to correct wry nose in horses, and to report postoperative complications and long-term outcomes of horse...
Demographic change and selection patterns in thoroughbred racing horses over the 20th century. The Thoroughbred horse is a legacy of centuries of selective breeding for speed, emerging from the admixture of British mares and imported Oriental stallions. While previous work explored its genetic diversity, inbreeding, and selection signatures, the breed demographic and selection dynamics during the 20-century remain poorly understood. Here, we sequenced the genome of Phar Lap, a late-1920s/early-1930s racing champion, and analyzed the largest time-series of Thoroughbred whole-genome sequences, within a global panel of 850 horse genomes. Demographic modeling reveals a marked decline in gen...
Platelet indices’ dynamic in broodmares: Effects of parity and lactation. Lactation and parity are physiological factors influencing platelet (PLT) indices, yet their combined effects in mares remain poorly characterized. As a dynamic process, lactation involves metabolic and endocrine changes that may influence thrombopoiesis; therefore, reproductive history and lactation stage may modulate PLT indices. Objective: To characterize longitudinal platelet (PLT) indices during early lactation in mares and evaluate the influence of parity on thrombopoietic responses. Methods: Fifty-five clinically healthy Spanish Purebred mares were included (20 primiparous and 25 multip...
Genetic Indicators of Performance Resilience in Barrel Racing Quarter Horses. Resilience, defined as the capacity to maintain consistent performance under variable conditions, has emerged as a relevant breeding objective in livestock systems, yet remains largely unexplored in equine populations. The objectives of this study were to (1) derive indicators of resilience from longitudinal barrel racing time (BRT) records in Brazilian Quarter Horses, (2) estimate genetic parameters for these indicators, and (3) quantify their genetic relationships with BRT and accumulated career earnings (ACE). The dataset comprised BRT records from barrel racing events held between 2010 and...
An Investigation of the Role of Ridden Exercise, Including Application of the Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram, in Pre-Purchase Examinations of Sports Horses. Many horses undergo a pre-purchase examination (PPE) prior to acquisition by a new owner; however, despite evidence that lameness and canter dysfunction may only be apparent during ridden exercise, ridden exercises assessing gait quality is not a routine part of PPEs. The objectives were to determine the influence of the results of ridden exercise on decision-making concerning risk assessment for purchase and to establish the long-term performance of horses. Twenty-five sports horses underwent PPEs including ridden exercises to assess gait quality and to apply the Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (R...
Computed tomography long-term follow-up of a facial fracture involving the orbit and paranasal sinus. Fractures of the facial bones involving the orbit are challenging conditions that require surgical treatment. Objective: To describe preoperative and postoperative clinical and computed tomographic findings of an orbital rim fracture repaired using a reconstruction plate. Methods: Case report. Methods: A 14-year-old Haflinger mare was presented with an open, depressed and comminuted fracture involving the frontal, nasal, lacrimal and maxillary bone, sinus system and the medial aspect of the orbital rim and wall on the right side, as diagnosed by CT. Fracture repair included orbital rim reconst...
Smartphone-Based Technologies in Equine Sports Medicine: Supporting Athlete Management-A Review. Equine sports medicine is increasingly oriented toward objective, field-based monitoring systems that support both performance optimization and welfare assessment. In this context, smartphone-based technologies have emerged as accessible tools capable of integrating data acquisition, processing, and interpretation within a single platform. This narrative review aims to examine the role of smartphones in equine sports medicine, focusing on their function as standalone sensing devices and as gateways for wearable and external sensor systems. The analysis is based on a structured synthesis of cur...
Circulating Elements in the Bloodstream of Growing Foals: Focus on Heavy Metals and Bone Remodeling Across Growth Stages. Bone tissue undergoes continuous remodelling throughout the life of the individual, and growth is the most impacting phase. In fact, tightly coordinated processes of resorption, synthesis, and mineralization of the bone matrix under systemic hormonal, biomechanical, and metabolic control occur for variable periods of time across species. The horse is a fast-growing animal and for this reason identified as precocial. It was hypothesized that blood serum levels of minerals in growing foals at different stages of accretion may vary over time. This investigation aimed to assess the dynamics of cir...
Successful restoration of heathlands and grasslands associated with long-term habitat preferences of cattle and horses: Insights from GPS tracking. Long-term, year-round grazing by large herbivores is increasingly used to restore degraded temperate heathlands and grasslands, yet the behavioral mechanisms of grazers underlying restoration remain insufficiently understood. We combined over 13 years of high-resolution GPS-tracking data of free-ranging Heck cattle and Konik horses with repeated vegetation surveys across various habitat types (encroachment-derived Calamagrostis epigejos stands, dry sandy grasslands, dry heaths, and pioneer forests) in Central Germany. We quantified how habitat preference and vegetation structure co-develop und...
Validation of measurable radiographic parameters for quantitative assessment of carpal and metacarpal bone morphology in foals. Radiographic morphometry provides a quantitative means to evaluate bone conformation in horses, yet validation of these parameters in foals has not previously been undertaken. This study aimed to determine the intra- and inter-rater repeatability and reproducibility of established carpal and third metacarpal (MC3) radiographic parameters in Thoroughbred foals and to establish baseline conformational data. Twenty Thoroughbred foals were radiographed without sedation from birth to 14 months of age at two-month intervals. Dorsopalmar carpal and lateromedial MC3 radiographs were obtained using sta...
Pilot Study of an Alpha-2-Macroglobulin-Enriched Plasma-Derived Orthobiologic Preparation in Sport Horses with Chronic Degenerative Joint Disease. Chronic joint disease is a major cause of lameness and reduced performance in sport horses and is characterized by persistent synovial inflammation and protease-mediated matrix degradation. This exploratory prospective pilot study investigated clinical outcomes and synovial biomarker changes following intra-articular administration of an α-2-macroglobulin plasma-derived preparation. Twenty client-owned sport horses were observed in the treatment group (n = 10) or a comparison group (n = 10) and monitored for up to 180 days under field conditions. Clinical outcomes were assessed longitudinally...
Is the walk and trot efficiency a hereditary trait in primitive Konik Polski horses? Performance testing is a critical tool for achieving genetic progress, yet its long-term effectiveness in primitive breeds under conservation programs is poorly documented. The Konik Polski horse breeding program aims to improve utility while preserving primitive characteristics. Unassigned: This retrospective study analyzed a 25-year longitudinal dataset ( = 1,608) from the official Field Performance Test to quantify genetic trends in gait efficiency, using nonparametric methods to assess the effects of test type, year, and age on stride length and speed at the walk and trot. To estimate he...
Air pollution exposure during training impairs performance in Thoroughbred racehorses. Ambient air pollution contributes substantially to human morbidity and mortality, and athletes are recognised as a particularly vulnerable group. However, little is known about the impact of air pollution on equine athletes. Objective: To explore the relationship between air pollution exposure during the pre-competition training period and race day performance among Thoroughbred racehorses that competed on California racetracks. Methods: A retrospective longitudinal study. Methods: For each winning horse, pollutant exposure during the 21-day pre-competition training period was assigned using d...
Case Report: Physiological Stress Responses to Repeated, Standardized Short-Distance Transport in a Transport-Experienced Horse. Transport is a fundamental component of equestrian training and competition. However, even horses with extensive transport experience may exhibit physiological stress responses during routine travel. This case report describes physiological stress responses in a transport-experienced 10-year-old Belgian Warmblood gelding subjected to repeated, standardized short-distance transport. The horse was transported on 17 occasions along a fixed route to a riding school for dressage training using the same vehicle, handler, and protocol to minimize environmental variability. Physiological stress marker...
Efficacy of an Oral Chondroprotective Joint Supplement on Stride Length and Gait Symmetry in Aged Geldings with Chronic Lameness. Oral joint supplements (OJSs), specifically those containing glucosamine and chondroitin sulfate, are some of the most popular feed additives fed by horse owners. However, evidence of the efficacy of these nutraceuticals in vivo is lacking. To investigate the impacts of an OJS on equine lameness, 40 geldings (18 ± 7 yr) with chronic lameness and AAEP lameness grades between 2 and 4 (as scored by a veterinary sports medicine and rehabilitation specialist) were enrolled in the study. Horses were stratified by lameness grade, BCS, and weight, and then randomly assigned to receive a placebo powde...
Longitudinal associations between dorsal carpal and third metacarpal bone morphology in Thoroughbred foals during growth. The carpal and third metacarpal (MC3) bones of the equine forelimb undergo morphological adaptation during early growth, influenced by developmental and mechanical factors. However, the longitudinal interactions between dorsal carpal morphology and MC3 structural characteristics have not been fully characterized. Improved understanding of these relationships may help identify morphological indicators associated with bone injury risk before training. Objective: To examine the longitudinal associations between dorsal carpal angular morphology and MC3 diaphyseal parameters in growing Thoroughbred...
Longitudinal assessment of hemostatic adaptations in pregnant mares: Evidence of a physiological hypercoagulable state. Pregnancy triggers intricate hemostatic adjustments that support placental maturation and prepare the maternal organism for delivery. We hypothesized that pregnant mares would progressively shift toward a procoagulant state throughout gestation, reflected in changes to coagulation and fibrinolytic markers. To test this hypothesis, 15 clinically healthy Spanish Purebred pregnant mares were monitored monthly from conception to term, alongside 15 non-pregnant controls of similar age and breed. A comprehensive hemostatic profile-including platelet (PLT) count, prothrombin time (PT), activated part...
Objective, Longitudinal Computed Tomographic Evaluation of the Metacarpal Condyles in Non-Lame Thoroughbred Racehorses. There are limited data on sequential computed tomographic (CT) evaluation and objective CT assessment of the metacarpal condyles in Thoroughbred racehorses. This longitudinal study aimed to document changes in attenuation of the metacarpal condyles during the first two years of training and racing. Fan-beam CT examination of the metacarpophalangeal regions was performed on 40 non-lame Thoroughbred yearlings, and repeated four more times, approximately six months apart. Mean Hounsfield Unit (HU) measurements were obtained on sagittal reconstructions of the dorsal and palmar halves of the medial...
Natural eggshell membrane supplementation for chronic lameness in warmblood horses: a 12-week prospective before-after study. Osteoarthritis is a leading cause of equine lameness, yet pragmatic evidence for nutraceuticals in horses remains limited. Unassigned: We prospectively evaluated 12 weeks of daily natural eggshell membrane (NEM; 12 mg/kg, orally) supplementation in Warmblood horses with chronic lameness using a single-arm before-after design. Ten horses were enrolled and prespecified paired contrasts compared visit 3 (V3, week 12) with baseline (V1). Outcomes included rider-reported under-saddle function (walk and trot), examiner-graded lameness (rest and walk-trot composite), simple joint-angle kinematics...
Monitoring trace minerals and heavy metals in liver of free-living large herbivores in the Netherlands. Trace minerals are essential for animal health but can also, together with heavy metals, have a negative impact, making their monitoring crucial to assess animal health. These elements were examined through a long-term post-mortem monitoring system based on routine liver sampling for Heck cattle, Konik horses and red deer in place at the Oostvaardersplassen nature reserve in the Netherlands, using data from this system to determine reference intervals and investigate trends in liver trace element concentrations. Throughout the monitoring programme, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry ...
Short- and Long-Term Outcomes in Horses Following Laparoscopic Nephrosplenic Space Ablation. Left dorsal displacement of the large colon (LDDLC) is a common cause of colic in horses and it is frequently associated with recurrent episodes, with significant implications for horse management, athletic performance, and owner satisfaction. Laparoscopic nephrosplenic space (NSS) ablation is a preventive surgical technique aimed at reducing recurrence in horses with a history of medically or surgically treated LDDLC. This retrospective study evaluated 48 horses that underwent laparoscopic NSS ablation in two Italian Veterinary Teaching Hospitals between 2016 and 2024. Short-term outcomes, in...
Sex-Related Differences in Show-Jumping Performance of Retired Thoroughbred Racehorses in Relation to the Interval Since Race Retirement. To investigate the factors affecting the utilization of retired Thoroughbred racehorses in equestrian disciplines, Bayesian linear mixed models were separately fitted using rank, round time, and obstacle faults from show-jumping competitions restricted to retired Thoroughbred racehorses as dependent variables, with the interaction between horse sex and the interval from race retirement to competition (as a proxy for transition training to show-jumping) as a fixed effect. When the interval was short (≤1 year), the estimated marginal mean of rank was statistically significantly lower in stalli...
Detection and Longitudinal Monitoring of Cyclosporine in Horse Plasma and Urine After Ocular Implant Administration. This paper describes the detection and longitudinal monitoring of cyclosporine in plasma and urine after subconjunctival implant administration in a horse. Sensitive liquid chromatography tandem mass spectroscopy (LC-MS/MS) methods for detecting cyclosporine in horse plasma and urine have been developed and validated, with estimated limits of detection down to 1 pg/mL in both matrices. The developed methods enabled longitudinal monitoring of cyclosporine levels in blood and urine samples collected over 6 months from a horse that had received an ocular cyclosporine implant.
Evaluation of long-term postoperative morbidity and survival after equine colic surgery using a complication severity classification. Most studies on colic surgery outcome focus on short-term survival and complications. Long-term outcomes, particularly post-discharge morbidity, are poorly characterised despite their relevance. No standardised system has previously integrated both short- and long-term postoperative complications with survival outcomes. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate long-term survival and morbidity in horses after colic surgery using the equine postoperative complication score (EPOCS), and to assess the association between complications and survival. Methods: The medical records of horses undergoing ...
Affiliative behaviours regulate allostasis development and shape biobehavioural trajectories in horses. Social interactions shape both the physiological and behavioural development of offspring, and poor care/early caregiver loss is known to promote adverse outcomes during infancy in both animals and humans. How affiliative behaviours impact the future development of offspring remains an open question. Here, we used Equus caballus (domestic horse) as a model to investigate this question. By coupling magnetic resonance imaging, longitudinal biobehavioural assessments and advanced multivariate statistical modelling, we found that prolonged maternal presence during infancy promotes the maturation o...
