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Journal of applied genetics2026; doi: 10.1007/s13353-026-01053-y

Horse racing towards antibiotic resistance. Accompanying animals as a source of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Abstract: Antibiotic resistance is a significant issue in modern infectious medicine and veterinary science, with animals, including horses, playing a crucial role in its dissemination. Antibiotics, used both for treatment and prevention of diseases in animals, influence the composition of the microbiota and promote the selection of resistant strains that can be transmitted to humans through direct or environmental contact. Horses, currently classified as companion animals, serve as a reservoir of commensal and pathogenic bacteria, including multidrug-resistant strains capable of horizontal gene transfer. Of particular importance are plasmids and integrons that carry genes encoding β-lactamases, which significantly reduce the effectiveness of therapy in both humans and animals. Analysis of the equine oral and gut microbiota highlights the potential of these environments as sources and vectors of resistance. Understanding the mechanisms underlying the transfer and persistence of resistance genes in horses is crucial for public health and helps define new directions for research within the One Health framework.
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Publication Date: 2026-04-29 PubMed ID: 42050107PubMed Central: 163149DOI: 10.1007/s13353-026-01053-yGoogle Scholar: Lookup
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Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This article explains how horses can carry and spread antibiotic‑resistant bacteria to people and the environment, and why this matters for both human and animal health. It emphasizes mobile genetic elements like plasmids and integrons that move resistance genes—especially those for β‑lactamases—within the horse microbiota and across species, calling for a One Health approach.

What the article is about and why it matters

  • The paper reviews evidence that horses, now broadly categorized as companion animals, can act as reservoirs for both harmless (commensal) and disease‑causing (pathogenic) bacteria that are resistant to multiple antibiotics.
  • It argues that antibiotic use in veterinary care shapes the equine microbiota and selects for resistant strains that can be transmitted to humans via direct contact or through the shared environment (stables, pastures, water, equipment).
  • The review highlights mobile genetic elements—especially plasmids and integrons—that carry β‑lactamase genes, which undermine the efficacy of key antibiotics in both veterinary and human medicine.
  • By situating horses within the One Health framework, the article underscores interconnected risks and the need for integrated surveillance, stewardship, and research across human, animal, and environmental sectors.

Key concepts and definitions

  • Antibiotic resistance: The ability of bacteria to survive or grow despite exposure to antibiotics that would normally inhibit or kill them.
  • Commensal vs. pathogenic bacteria: Commensals typically live harmlessly on mucosal surfaces (e.g., gut, oral cavity) and can act as reservoirs of resistance genes; pathogens cause disease and can acquire resistance from commensals.
  • Multidrug resistance (MDR): Resistance to multiple antibiotic classes, making infections harder to treat.
  • Horizontal gene transfer (HGT): Movement of genes between bacteria via mechanisms such as conjugation (plasmid transfer), transformation, or transduction, enabling rapid spread of resistance traits.
  • Plasmids and integrons: Plasmids are transferable DNA molecules often carrying resistance genes; integrons are genetic platforms that capture and express gene cassettes, including those encoding resistance determinants like β‑lactamases.
  • β‑lactamases: Enzymes that inactivate β‑lactam antibiotics (e.g., penicillins, cephalosporins); their genes commonly reside on plasmids/integrons, facilitating spread across bacterial species.

Why horses are important in the resistance landscape

  • Classification and contact: As companion animals, horses have frequent, close contact with owners, veterinarians, and stable workers—creating opportunities for bidirectional transfer of resistant bacteria.
  • Veterinary antibiotic use: Therapeutic and preventive antibiotic use in equine medicine exerts selection pressure, enriching resistant populations within the horse microbiota.
  • Environmental interface: Manure, bedding, tack, water troughs, and pasture runoff can disseminate resistant bacteria and genes beyond the stable, potentially reaching other animals and people.
  • Movement and aggregation: Training, competition, transport, and hospitalization bring horses together, increasing transmission and mixing of microbial communities.

Equine oral and gut microbiota as reservoirs

  • Oral cavity:
    • Harbors dense, diverse biofilm communities on teeth, tongue, and tack (e.g., bits), which can facilitate gene exchange and persistence of resistance determinants.
    • Frequent human–horse contact (feeding, grooming, dental care) and droplet spread during handling create opportunities for transfer.
    • Saliva and oral secretions contaminate shared equipment and surfaces, seeding resistant organisms in stables and trailers.
  • Gastrointestinal tract:
    • The hindgut contains large microbial populations where antibiotic exposure perturbs community structure and promotes selection of resistant strains.
    • Fecal shedding releases resistant bacteria and mobile genetic elements into the environment, supporting onward spread and environmental persistence.
    • Co-selection pressures (e.g., metals, disinfectants) can maintain resistance even when antibiotic exposure is intermittent or reduced.

Mobile genetic elements and the role of β‑lactamases

  • Plasmids:
    • Carry clusters of resistance genes, enabling simultaneous resistance to multiple antibiotic classes.
    • Transfer readily between commensal and pathogenic bacteria within the horse, and potentially to human-associated bacteria.
  • Integrons:
    • Capture and express gene cassettes, including β‑lactamase genes, streamlining the assembly of multidrug resistance profiles.
    • Facilitate rapid adaptation to antibiotic pressures encountered in veterinary care settings.
  • β‑lactamases:
    • Reduce the effectiveness of widely used β‑lactam antibiotics in both humans and animals, complicating empirical therapy.
    • When encoded on plasmids and integrons, they can spread swiftly across species and environments associated with horses.

Transmission pathways from horses to humans and other ecosystems

  • Direct contact: Handling, grooming, riding, veterinary procedures, and wound care can transfer resistant organisms to human skin, nares, or mucosa.
  • Indirect and environmental routes: Contaminated tack, grooming tools, stalls, manure piles, soil, water runoff, and aerosols within barns facilitate spread.
  • Healthcare interfaces: Equine clinics and hospitals concentrate antibiotic use and susceptible hosts, increasing selection and dissemination risks.
  • Inter-species spillover: Farm and companion animals sharing facilities or pastures may exchange resistant bacteria, amplifying regional spread.

Public health and One Health implications

  • Integrated risk: Resistance in equine settings can compromise treatment options across species and propagate via environmental reservoirs.
  • Surveillance needs: Coordinated monitoring of horses, humans in contact with horses, and surrounding environments helps detect and track resistance trends and mobile elements.
  • Stewardship alignment: Harmonizing veterinary and human antibiotic stewardship reduces selection pressure and slows resistance emergence.

Practical mitigation strategies (inferred from One Health principles)

  • Antibiotic stewardship in equine practice:
  • Infection prevention and control:
    • Hand hygiene, personal protective equipment for high‑risk tasks, and equipment disinfection protocols in barns and clinics.
    • Isolation of horses with suspected contagious infections; cohorting and traffic flow management during outbreaks.
  • Environmental management:
    • Manure handling and composting practices that reduce bacterial survival and runoff contamination.
    • Regular cleaning of water troughs, feed bins, and tack; design of drainage to prevent spread to surrounding waterways.
  • Education and communication:
    • Training for owners, riders, stable staff, and veterinarians on resistance risks and preventive practices.
    • Clear guidance on when to seek diagnostics and how to administer prescribed treatments responsibly.

Research directions highlighted by the review

  • Mechanistic studies:
    • Elucidate how plasmids and integrons circulate within equine oral and gut communities and across species boundaries.
    • Identify ecological factors (diet, housing, co‑medications, disinfectants) that drive selection and persistence of resistance genes.
  • Genomic and metagenomic surveillance:
    • Longitudinal profiling of the equine resistome and mobilome across farms, clinics, and competition settings.
    • High‑resolution mapping to link specific resistance genes and β‑lactamases to their bacterial hosts and transmission networks.
  • Intervention trials:
    • Evaluate stewardship bundles, biosecurity enhancements, and environmental controls for measurable impact on resistance prevalence.
    • Assess microbiota‑sparing therapies and alternative approaches where appropriate and evidence supports safety and efficacy.

Limitations and cautions when interpreting the evidence

  • Heterogeneity in study designs, sampling sites (oral vs. gut), and detection methods can yield variable resistance estimates.
  • Geographic and facility‑type biases (e.g., referral hospitals vs. community stables) may limit generalizability.
  • Cross‑sectional snapshots reveal presence but not directionality or persistence of transmission; longitudinal data are needed.

Take‑home message

  • Horses can act as important reservoirs and conduits for antibiotic‑resistant bacteria via their oral and gut microbiota, with plasmids and integrons—especially those carrying β‑lactamase genes—driving spread and persistence.
  • Mitigating this risk requires coordinated One Health actions: prudent antibiotic use, robust infection control, environmental management, and integrated surveillance and research.

Cite This Article

APA
Lepianka A, Sitkiewicz I. (2026). Horse racing towards antibiotic resistance. Accompanying animals as a source of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. J Appl Genet. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13353-026-01053-y

Publication

Journal of applied genetics
ISSN: 2190-3883
NlmUniqueID: 9514582
Country: England
Language: English

Researcher Affiliations

Lepianka, Aleksandra
  • Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW Institute of Biology, Nowoursynowska 159, Warsaw, 02-776, Poland.
Sitkiewicz, Izabela
  • Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW Institute of Biology, Nowoursynowska 159, Warsaw, 02-776, Poland. izabela_sitkiewicz@sggw.edu.pl.

Conflict of Interest Statement

Declarations. Ethics approval: This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors. The manuscript does not require ethics approval. Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interests. The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Consent to participate: The review does not require Informed consent. Consent to publish: The manuscript does not contain personal data and does not require consent to publish.

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