FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
International journal of molecular sciences2025; 26(12); 5653; doi: 10.3390/ijms26125653

Iron Status in Sport Horses: Is It Important for Equine Athletes?

Abstract: Iron is unquestionably an essential element of physical performance for horses, just as it is for many other animals, including humans. Although post-exercise equine iron deficiency is not a common problem, recent studies showed that equine athletes may be considered a model for human exercise physiology. Sports anemia among human athletes is a common nutritional issue and remains one reason for poor physical fitness. Thus, this study area needs comprehensive knowledge since iron homeostasis changes in equine athletes remain unrecognized. The current review aims to summarize studies describing iron metabolism changes in response to physical effort in equine sports medicine. The confirmed prevalence of gastrointestinal bleeding, hemolysis, and hematuria in horse athletes seems to play a role in iron metabolism. Similarly, exercise-induced inflammation and its effect on the iron key regulator in mammals-hepcidin-may be as crucial for overall iron homeostasis in horses as in humans. In this review, we also present available data regarding the possible effect of various hormones on iron metabolism, performance-enhancing strategies related to iron metabolism in horse athletes, and the clinical relevance of regular iron status monitoring in sport horses. Overall, this article aims to discuss current knowledge and highlight existing gaps in our understanding of iron homeostasis in sport horses.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2025-06-12 PubMed ID: 40565115PubMed Central: PMC12192657DOI: 10.3390/ijms26125653Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This research article investigates the role of iron in the physical performance of sport horses, and its metabolism changes in response to physical exertion in these animals. The study also looks at the effects of different hormones on iron metabolism and performance-enhancing strategies for sport horses.

Understanding Iron Metabolism Changes in Sport Horses

The researchers work to summarize past studies that have delved into how the iron metabolism alters in response to physical effort in sport horses. Knowledge of this aspect is crucial as it contributes to horse performance in varying intensities of sport.

  • The exercise-induced changes are implied to play a significant role in managing iron metabolism in these animals. Understanding these changes can shed light on the physiology of equine athletes and contribute significantly to their overall fitness and enhanced performance.
  • The research also recognizes and acknowledges prevalent health conditions in sport horses such as gastrointestinal bleeding, hemolysis, and hematuria. These conditions are noted for their contribution to iron metabolism in sport horses.

The Effect of Inflammation and Hormones on Iron Metabolism

The paper examines the role of exercise-induced inflammation on iron homeostasis in horses. Here, the primary focus is on its potential to influence the functioning of hepcidin, a key iron-regulating entity present in mammals.

  • The significance of hepcidin can’t be emphasized enough as it is as crucial for overall iron homeostasis in horses as in humans. Any changes in hepcidin functioning due to inflammation or other factors can greatly distort the iron balance in the horse’s body.
  • The research also examines the possible effects that different hormones might have on iron metabolism. These insights are essential because hormonal changes can greatly affect metabolism, and understanding these interactions can open up new ways to enhance performance in sport horses.

Drawing Performance-Enhancing Strategies and Clinical Relevance

The study aims to present data regarding performance-enhancing strategies connected to iron metabolism among sport horses. It also emphasizes the clinical importance of regular monitoring of iron status in these animals.

  • By highlighting the potential of iron metabolism to contribute to the overall performance, the research brings to light possible strategies to enhance performance through adjustments in diet, exercise, and supplements.
  • Regular monitoring and understanding iron status in sport horses also have immense clinical relevance. By being alert to any fluctuations, early interventions can be put in place to prevent any detrimental impact on the horse’s performance or overall health.
  • Additionally, understanding the nuanced aspects of iron metabolism in sport horses can bridge the knowledge gaps in equine sports medicine and contribute to better management practices for these animals.

Cite This Article

APA
Kiełbik P, Witkowska-Piłaszewicz O. (2025). Iron Status in Sport Horses: Is It Important for Equine Athletes? Int J Mol Sci, 26(12), 5653. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26125653

Publication

International journal of molecular sciences
ISSN: 1422-0067
NlmUniqueID: 101092791
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 26
Issue: 12
PII: 5653

Researcher Affiliations

Kiełbik, Paula
  • Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland.
Witkowska-Piłaszewicz, Olga
  • Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Horses / physiology
  • Iron / metabolism
  • Iron / blood
  • Physical Conditioning, Animal
  • Homeostasis
  • Athletes
  • Hepcidins / metabolism
  • Humans
  • Sports
  • Anemia, Iron-Deficiency

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

This article includes 122 references
  1. Lasocki S, Gaillard T, Rineau E. Iron is essential for living!. Crit. Care 2014;18:678.
    doi: 10.1186/s13054-014-0678-7pmc: PMC4331421pubmed: 25673336google scholar: lookup
  2. Lieu P.T, Heiskala M, Peterson P.A, Yang Y. The roles of iron in health and disease. Mol. Aspects Med. 2001;22:1–87.
    doi: 10.1016/S0098-2997(00)00006-6pubmed: 11207374google scholar: lookup
  3. Roy R, Kück M, Radziwolek L, Kerling A. Iron Deficiency in Adolescent and Young Adult German Athletes-A Retrospective Study. Nutrients 2022;14:4511.
    doi: 10.3390/nᐡ4511pmc: PMC9657900pubmed: 36364775google scholar: lookup
  4. Parks R.B, Hetzel S.J, Brooks M.A. Iron Deficiency and Anemia among Collegiate Athletes: A Retrospective Chart Review. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2017;49:1711–1715.
    doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000001259pubmed: 28277407google scholar: lookup
  5. Sim M, Garvican-Lewis L.A, Cox G.R, Govus A, McKay A.K.A, Stellingwerff T, Peeling P. Iron considerations for the athlete: A narrative review. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2019;119:1463–1478.
    doi: 10.1007/s00421-019-04157-ypubmed: 31055680google scholar: lookup
  6. Eichner E.R. Sports anemia, iron supplements, and blood doping. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1992;24((Suppl. 9)):S315–S318.
    doi: 10.1249/00005768-199209001-00002pubmed: 1406203google scholar: lookup
  7. Clénin G, Cordes M, Huber A, Schumacher Y.O, Noack P, Scales J, Kriemler S. Iron deficiency in sports—Definition, influence on performance and therapy. Swiss Med. Wkly. 2015;145:w14196.
    doi: 10.4414/smw.2015.14196pubmed: 26512429google scholar: lookup
  8. Weaver C.M, Rajaram S. Exercise and iron status. J. Nutr. 1992;122((Suppl. 3)):782–787.
    doi: 10.1093/jn/122.suppl_3.782pubmed: 1542048google scholar: lookup
  9. Inoue Y, Matsui A, Asai Y, Aoki F, Matsui T, Yano H. Effect of exercise on iron metabolism in horses. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2005;107:33–42.
    doi: 10.1385/BTER:107:1:033pubmed: 16170220google scholar: lookup
  10. Larsson J, Pilborg P.H, Johansen M, Christophersen M.T, Holte A, Roepstorff L, Olsen L.H, Harrison A.P. Physiological parameters of endurance horses pre- compared to post-race, correlated with performance: A two race study from scandinavia. ISRN Vet. Sci. 2013;2013:684353.
    doi: 10.1155/2013/684353pmc: PMC3791564pubmed: 24167733google scholar: lookup
  11. Witkowska-Piłaszewicz O, Malin K, Dąbrowska I, Grzędzicka J, Ostaszewski P, Carter C. Immunology of Physical Exercise: Is Equus caballus an Appropriate Animal Model for Human Athletes?. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024;25:5210.
    doi: 10.3390/ijms25105210pmc: PMC11121269pubmed: 38791248google scholar: lookup
  12. McIlwraith C.W, Frisbie D.D, Kawcak C.E. The horse as a model of naturally occurring osteoarthritis. Bone Jt. Res. 2012;1:297–309.
    doi: 10.1302/2046-3758.111.2000132pmc: PMC3626203pubmed: 23610661google scholar: lookup
  13. Patterson-Kane J.C, Becker D.L, Rich T. The pathogenesis of tendon microdamage in athletes: The horse as a natural model for basic cellular research. J. Comp. Pathol. 2012;147:227–247.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2012.05.010pubmed: 22789861google scholar: lookup
  14. Hooda J, Shah A, Zhang L. Heme, an essential nutrient from dietary proteins, critically impacts diverse physiological and pathological processes. Nutrients 2014;6:1080–1102.
    doi: 10.3390/n怱080pmc: PMC3967179pubmed: 24633395google scholar: lookup
  15. Skrzypczak W, Stefaniak T, Zabielski R. Fizjologia Noworodka. 2011. pp. 286–291.
  16. Hentze M.W, Muckenthaler M.U, Andrews N.C. Balancing acts: Molecular control of mammalian iron metabolism. Cell 2004;117:285–297.
    doi: 10.1016/S0092-8674(04)00343-5pubmed: 15109490google scholar: lookup
  17. Malyszko J. Hepcidin assays: Ironing out some details. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2009;4:1015–1016.
    doi: 10.2215/CJN.02690409pubmed: 19470661google scholar: lookup
  18. Ganz T. Molecular control of iron transport. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2007;18:394–400.
    doi: 10.1681/ASN.2006070802pubmed: 17229910google scholar: lookup
  19. National Research Council (NRC). The Nutrient Requirements of Horses. 6th ed.. 2022.
  20. Saran T, Zawadka M, Chmiel S, Mazur A. Sweat iron concentration during 4-week exercise training. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 2018;25:500–503.
    doi: 10.26444/aaem/78787pubmed: 30260183google scholar: lookup
  21. Waller M.F, Haymes E.M. The effects of heat and exercise on sweat iron loss. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1996;28:197–203.
    doi: 10.1097/00005768-199602000-00007pubmed: 8775154google scholar: lookup
  22. Peeling P, Dawson B, Goodman C, Landers G, Trinder D. Athletic induced iron deficiency: New insights into the role of inflammation, cytokines and hormones. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2008;103:381–391.
    doi: 10.1007/s00421-008-0726-6pubmed: 18365240google scholar: lookup
  23. Pakula P.D, Halama A, Al-Dous E.K, Johnson S.J, Filho S.A, Suhre K, Vinardell T. Characterization of exercise-induced hemolysis in endurance horses. Front. Vet. Sci. 2023;10:1115776.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1115776pmc: PMC10174325pubmed: 37180073google scholar: lookup
  24. Masini A, Tedeschi D, Baragli P, Sighieri C, Lubas G. Exercise-induced intravascular haemolysis in standardbred horses. Comp. Clin. Pathol. 2003;12:45–48.
    doi: 10.1007/s00580-002-0470-ygoogle scholar: lookup
  25. Cywinska A, Szarska E, Kowalska A, Ostaszewski P, Schollenberger A. Gender differences in exercise-induced intravascular haemolysis during race training in thoroughbred horses. Res. Vet. Sci. 2011;90:133–137.
    doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.05.004pubmed: 20553886google scholar: lookup
  26. Schott H.C. 2nd, Hodgson D.R, Bayly W.M. Haematuria, pigmenturia and proteinuria in exercising horses. Equine Vet. J. 1995;27:67–72.
    pubmed: 7774551
  27. Fisher R.L, McMahon L.F. Jr, Ryan M.J, Larson D, Brand M. Gastrointestinal bleeding in competitive runners. Dig. Dis. Sci. 1986;31:1226–1228.
    doi: 10.1007/BF01296524pubmed: 3490361google scholar: lookup
  28. Baska R.S, Moses F.M, Graeber G, Kearney G. Gastrointestinal bleeding during an ultramarathon. Dig. Dis. Sci. 1990;35:276–279.
    doi: 10.1007/BF01536777pubmed: 2302987google scholar: lookup
  29. Grooteman K, van Geenen E, Kievit W, Drenth J. Chronic anemia due to gastrointestinal bleeding: When do gastroenterologists transfuse?. United Eur. Gastroenterol. J. 2017;5:967–973.
    doi: 10.1177/2050640617694278pmc: PMC5676546pubmed: 29163962google scholar: lookup
  30. Nieto J.E, Snyder J.R, Beldomenico P, Aleman M, Kerr J.W, Spier S.J. Prevalence of gastric ulcers in endurance horses—A preliminary report. Vet. J. 2004;167:33–37.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2003.09.005pubmed: 14623148google scholar: lookup
  31. Vatistas N.J, Snyder J.R, Carlson G, Johnson B, Arthur R.M, Thurmond M, Zhou H, Lloyd K.L. Cross-sectional study of gastric ulcers of the squamous mucosa in thoroughbred racehorses. Equine Vet. J. Suppl. 1999;31:34–39.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05166.xpubmed: 10696291google scholar: lookup
  32. Lo Feudo C.M, Stucchi L, Conturba B, Stancari G, Zucca E, Ferrucci F. Equine Gastric Ulcer Syndrome affects fitness parameters in poorly performing Standardbred racehorses. Front. Vet. Sci. 2022;9:1014619.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.1014619pmc: PMC9732101pubmed: 36504861google scholar: lookup
  33. Lo Feudo C.M, Stucchi L, Conturba B, Stancari G, Zucca E, Ferrucci F. Medical causes of poor performance and their associations with fitness in Standardbred racehorses. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2023;37:1514–1527.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.16734pmc: PMC10365054pubmed: 37148147google scholar: lookup
  34. Crispe E.J, Lester G.D. Exercise-induced Pulmonary Hemorrhage: Is It Important and Can It Be Prevented?. Vet. Clin. North. Am. Equine Pract. 2019;35:339–350.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2019.03.007pubmed: 31084976google scholar: lookup
  35. Cotroneo E, Ashek A, Wang L, Wharton J, Dubois O, Bozorgi S, Busbridge M, Alavian K.N, Wilkins M.R, Zhao L. Iron homeostasis and pulmonary hypertension: Iron deficiency leads to pulmonary vascular remodeling in the rat. Circ. Res. 2015;116:1680–1690.
    doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.305265pubmed: 25767292google scholar: lookup
  36. Kong W.N, Gao G, Chang Y.Z. Hepcidin and sports anemia. Cell Biosci. 2014;4:19.
    doi: 10.1186/2045-3701-4-19pmc: PMC4008387pubmed: 24731443google scholar: lookup
  37. Nemeth E, Ganz T. The role of hepcidin in iron metabolism. Acta Haematol. 2009;122:78–86.
    doi: 10.1159/000243791pmc: PMC2855274pubmed: 19907144google scholar: lookup
  38. Sim M, Dawson B, Landers G, Swinkels D.W, Tjalsma H, Trinder D, Peeling P. Effect of exercise modality and intensity on post-exercise interleukin-6 and hepcidin levels. Int. J. Sport. Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2013;23:178–186.
    doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.23.2.178pubmed: 23070801google scholar: lookup
  39. Peeling P, McKay A.K.A, Pyne D.B, Guelfi K.J, McCormick R.H, Laarakkers C.M, Swinkels D.W, Garvican-Lewis L.A, Ross M.L.R, Sharma A.P. Factors influencing the post-exercise hepcidin-25 response in elite athletes. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2017;117:1233–1239.
    doi: 10.1007/s00421-017-3611-3pubmed: 28409396google scholar: lookup
  40. Badenhorst C.E, Dawson B, Goodman C, Sim M, Cox G.R, Gore C.J, Tjalsma H, Swinkels D.W, Peeling P. Influence of post-exercise hypoxic exposure on hepcidin response in athletes. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2014;114:951–959.
    doi: 10.1007/s00421-014-2829-6pubmed: 24487960google scholar: lookup
  41. Newlin M.K, Williams S, McNamara T, Tjalsma H, Swinkels D.W, Haymes E.M. The effects of acute exercise bouts on hepcidin in women. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2012;22:79–88.
    doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.22.2.79pubmed: 22349362google scholar: lookup
  42. Peeling P, Sim M, Badenhorst C.E, Dawson B, Govus A.D, Abbiss C.R, Swinkels D.W, Trinder D. Iron status and the acute post-exercise hepcidin response in athletes. PLoS ONE 2014;9:e93002.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0093002pmc: PMC3965532pubmed: 24667393google scholar: lookup
  43. Liu W, Zhang S, Li Q, Wu Y, Jia X, Feng W, Li Z, Shi Y, Hou Q, Ma J. Lactate modulates iron metabolism by binding soluble adenylyl cyclase. Cell Metab. 2023;35:1597–1612.e6.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2023.06.017pubmed: 37480842google scholar: lookup
  44. Cerqueira É, Marinho D.A, Neiva H.P, Lourenço O. Inflammatory Effects of High and Moderate Intensity Exercise-A Systematic Review. Front. Physiol. 2020;10:1550.
    doi: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01550pmc: PMC6962351pubmed: 31992987google scholar: lookup
  45. Beavers K.M, Brinkley T.E, Nicklas B.J. Effect of exercise training on chronic inflammation. Clin. Chim. Acta. 2010;411:785–793.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cca.2010.02.069pmc: PMC3629815pubmed: 20188719google scholar: lookup
  46. Nemeth E, Rivera S, Gabayan V, Keller C, Taudorf S, Pedersen B.K, Ganz T. Hepcidin-The Culprit Explaining Disturbed Iron Homeostasis in Chronic Renal Disease?: IL-6 Mediates Hypoferremia of Inflammation by Inducing the Synthesis of the Iron Regulatory Hormone Hepcidin. J Clin Invest 113:1271-1276, 2004.. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2005;16:287–290.
    doi: 10.1681/01.asn.0000926688.20809.aapubmed: 36996433google scholar: lookup
  47. Banzet S, Sanchez H, Chapot R, Bigard X, Vaulont S, Koulmann N. Interleukin-6 contributes to hepcidin mRNA increase in response to exercise. Cytokine 2012;58:158–161.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cyto.2012.01.006pubmed: 22326661google scholar: lookup
  48. Wlefting D.M, Andrews N.C. Interleukin-6 induces hepcidin expression through STAT3. Blood 2006;108:3204–3209.
    doi: 10.1182/blood-2006-06-027631pmc: PMC1895528pubmed: 16835372google scholar: lookup
  49. Witkowska-Piłaszewicz O, Bąska P, Czopowicz M, Żmigrodzka M, Szarska E, Szczepaniak J, Nowak Z, Winnicka A, Cywińska A. Anti-Inflammatory State in Arabian Horses Introduced to the Endurance Training. Animals 2019;9:616.
    doi: 10.3390/ani9090616pmc: PMC6769738pubmed: 31462005google scholar: lookup
  50. Pedersen B.K, Steensberg A, Fischer C, Keller C, Keller P, Plomgaard P, Febbraio M, Saltin B. Searching for the exercise factor: Is IL-6 a candidate?. J. Muscle Res. Cell Motil. 2003;24:113–119.
    doi: 10.1023/A:1026070911202pubmed: 14609022google scholar: lookup
  51. Oliveira-Filho J.P, Badial P.R, Cunha P.H, Peiró J.R, Araújo J.P. Jr, Divers T.J, Winand N.J, Borges A.S. Lipopolysaccharide infusion up-regulates hepcidin mRNA expression in equine liver. Innate Immun. 2012;18:438–446.
    doi: 10.1177/1753425911420181pubmed: 21926164google scholar: lookup
  52. Arfuso F, Giannetto C, Fazio F, Panzera F, Piccione G. Training Program Intensity Induces an Acute Phase Response in Clinically Healthy Horses. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2020;88:102986.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2020.102986pubmed: 32303313google scholar: lookup
  53. Kristensen L, Buhl R, Nostell K, Bak L, Petersen E, Lindholm M, Jacobsen S. Acute exercise does not induce an acute phase response (APR) in Standardbred trotters. Can. J. Vet. Res. 2014;78:97–102.
    pmc: PMC3962284pubmed: 24688170
  54. Colahan P.T, Kollias-Bakert C, Leutenegger C.M, Jones J.H. Does training affect mRNA transciption for cytokine production in circulating leucocytes?. Equine Vet. J. Suppl. 2002;34:154–158.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2002.tb05409.xpubmed: 12405677google scholar: lookup
  55. Witkowska-Piłaszewicz O, Pingwara R, Winnicka A. The Effect of Physical Training on Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell Ex Vivo Proliferation, Differentiation, Activity, and Reactive Oxygen Species Production in Racehorses. Antioxidants 2020;9:1155.
    doi: 10.3390/antiox9111155pmc: PMC7699811pubmed: 33233549google scholar: lookup
  56. Cadegiani F.A, Kater C.E. Hormonal aspects of overtraining syndrome: A systematic review. BMC Sports Sci. Med. Rehabil. 2017;9:14.
    doi: 10.1186/s13102-017-0079-8pmc: PMC5541747pubmed: 28785411google scholar: lookup
  57. Meeusen R, Nederhof E, Buyse L, Roelands B, de Schutter G, Piacentini M.F. Diagnosing overtraining in athletes using the two-bout exercise protocol. Br. J. Sports Med. 2010;44:642–648.
    doi: 10.1136/bjsm.2008.049981pubmed: 18703548google scholar: lookup
  58. Meeusen R, Piacentini M.F, Busschaert B, Buyse L, De Schutter G, Stray-Gundersen J. Hormonal responses in athletes: The use of a two bout exercise protocol to detect subtle differences in (over)training status. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2004;91:140–146.
    doi: 10.1007/s00421-003-0940-1pubmed: 14523562google scholar: lookup
  59. Wang J, Liu G, Xu Z, Dai J, Song P, Shi J, Hu Y, Hu Z, Nie G, Chang Y.Z. Hepcidin levels in hyperprolactinemic women monitored by nanopore thin film based assay: Correlation with pregnancy-associated hormone prolactin. Nanomedicine 2015;11:871–878.
    doi: 10.1016/j.nano.2015.01.008pubmed: 25659646google scholar: lookup
  60. Lehtihet M, Bonde Y, Beckman L, Berinder K, Hoybye C, Rudling M, Sloan J.H, Konrad R.J, Angelin B. Circulating Hepcidin-25 Is Reduced by Endogenous Estrogen in Humans. PLoS ONE 2016;11:e0148802.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0148802pmc: PMC4750915pubmed: 26866603google scholar: lookup
  61. Moreno-Carranza B, Bravo-Manríquez M, Baez A, Ledesma-Colunga M.G, Ruiz-Herrera X, Reyes-Ortega P, de Los Ríos E.A, Macotela Y, Martínez de la Escalera G, Clapp C. Prolactin regulates liver growth during postnatal development in mice. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2018;314:R902–R908.
    doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.00003.2018pubmed: 29466685google scholar: lookup
  62. Thompson D.L. Jr, DePew C.L, Ortiz A, Sticker L.S, Rahmanian M.S. Growth hormone and prolactin concentrations in plasma of horses: Sex differences and the effects of acute exercise and administration of growth hormone-releasing hormone. J. Anim. Sci. 1994;72:2911–2918.
    doi: 10.2527/1994.72112911xpubmed: 7730185google scholar: lookup
  63. Kitaura T, Sato F, Hada T, Ishimaru M, Kodama R, Nambo Y, Watanabe G, Taya K. Influence of exercise and emotional stresses on secretion of prolactin and growth hormone in Thoroughbred horses. J. Equine Sci. 2021;32:49–53.
    doi: 10.1294/jes.32.49pmc: PMC8240521pubmed: 34220271google scholar: lookup
  64. Assenza A, Arfuso F, Fazio F, Giannetto C, Rizzo M, Zumbo A, Piccione G. Effect of gender and jumping exercise on leukocyte number, dopamine and prolactin levels in horses. Thai J. Vet. Med. 2018;48:95–101.
    doi: 10.56808/2985-1130.2895google scholar: lookup
  65. Bachman E, Feng R, Travison T, Li M, Olbina G, Ostland V, Ulloor J, Zhang A, Basaria S, Ganz T. Testosterone suppresses hepcidin in men: A potential mechanism for testosterone-induced erythrocytosis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2010;95:4743–4747.
    doi: 10.1210/jc.2010-0864pmc: PMC3050108pubmed: 20660052google scholar: lookup
  66. Guo W, Bachman E, Li M, Roy C.N, Blusztajn J, Wong S, Chan S.Y, Serra C, Jasuja R, Travison T.G. Testosterone administration inhibits hepcidin transcription and is associated with increased iron incorporation into red blood cells. Aging Cell 2013;12:280–291.
    doi: 10.1111/acel.12052pmc: PMC3602280pubmed: 23399021google scholar: lookup
  67. Latour C, Kautz L, Besson-Fournier C, Island M.L, Canonne-Hergaux F, Loréal O, Ganz T, Coppin H, Roth M.P. Testosterone perturbs systemic iron balance through activation of epidermal growth factor receptor signaling in the liver and repression of hepcidin. Hepatology 2014;59:683–694.
    doi: 10.1002/hep.26648pubmed: 23907767google scholar: lookup
  68. Bachman E, Travison T.G, Basaria S, Davda M.N, Guo W, Li M, Connor Westfall J, Bae H, Gordeuk V, Bhasin S. Testosterone induces erythrocytosis via increased erythropoietin and suppressed hepcidin: Evidence for a new erythropoietin/hemoglobin set point. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 2014;69:725–735.
    doi: 10.1093/gerona/glt154pmc: PMC4022090pubmed: 24158761google scholar: lookup
  69. Neuberg-Zuchowicz K, Oedenberg H. Changes in hematological parameters of show jumping horses during yearly training cycle. Med. Weter. 2011;67:765–769.
  70. Czech A, Kiesz M, Kiesz A, Próchniak T, Różański P, Klimiuk K. Influence of Type of Use, Age and Gender on Haematological and Biochemical Blood Parameters of Małopolski Horses. Ann. Anim. Sci. 2019;19:85–96.
    doi: 10.2478/aoas-2018-0031google scholar: lookup
  71. Dąbrowska I, Grzędzicka J, Malin K, Pawliński B, Mickiewicz J, Witkowska-Piłaszewicz O. Intense Leisure Exploitation Influences on Horses Hormonal Reaction—Preliminary Study. Agriculture 2022;12:1777.
    doi: 10.3390/agriculture12111777google scholar: lookup
  72. Grzędzicka J, Dąbrowska I, Malin K, Witkowska-Piłaszewicz O. Exercise-related changes in the anabolic index (testosterone to cortisol ratio) and serum amyloid A concentration in endurance and racehorses at different fitness levels. Front. Vet. Sci. 2023;10:1148990.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1148990pmc: PMC10150884pubmed: 37138908google scholar: lookup
  73. Yang Q, Jian J, Katz S, Abramson S.B, Huang X. 17β-Estradiol inhibits iron hormone hepcidin through an estrogen responsive element half-site. Endocrinology 2012;153:3170–3178.
    doi: 10.1210/en.2011-2045pmc: PMC3380311pubmed: 22535765google scholar: lookup
  74. Hou Y, Zhang S, Wang L, Li J, Qu G, He J, Rong H, Ji H, Liu S. Estrogen regulates iron homeostasis through governing hepatic hepcidin expression via an estrogen response element. Gene 2012;511:398–403.
    doi: 10.1016/j.gene.2012.09.060pubmed: 23041085google scholar: lookup
  75. Alfaro-Magallanes V.M, Barba-Moreno L, Romero-Parra N, Rael B, Benito P.J, Swinkels D.W, Laarakkers C.M, Díaz Á.E, Peinado A.B, IronFEMME Study Group. Menstrual cycle affects iron homeostasis and hepcidin following interval running exercise in endurance-trained women. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2022;122:2683–2694.
    doi: 10.1007/s00421-022-05048-5pmc: PMC9613712pubmed: 36129579google scholar: lookup
  76. Satué K, Fazio E, La Fauci D, Medica P. Changes of Hepcidin, Ferritin and Iron Levels in Cycling Purebred Spanish Mares. Animals 2023;13:1229.
    doi: 10.3390/ani13071229pmc: PMC10093536pubmed: 37048485google scholar: lookup
  77. Li X, Rhee D.K, Malhotra R, Mayeur C, Hurst L.A, Ager E, Shelton G, Kramer Y, McCulloh D, Keefe D. Progesterone receptor membrane component-1 regulates hepcidin biosynthesis. J. Clin. Investig. 2016;126:389–401.
    doi: 10.1172/JCI83831pmc: PMC4701562pubmed: 26657863google scholar: lookup
  78. Wideman L, Weltman J.Y, Hartman M.L, Veldhuis J.D, Weltman A. Growth hormone release during acute and chronic aerobic and resistance exercise: Recent findings. Sports Med. 2002;32:987–1004.
    doi: 10.2165/00007256-200232150-00003pubmed: 12457419google scholar: lookup
  79. Vigas M, Celko J, Koska J. Role of body temperature in exercise-induced growth hormone and prolactin release in non-trained and physically fit subjects. Endocr. Regul. 2000;34:175–180.
    pubmed: 11137977
  80. Roemmich J.N, Rogol A.D. Exercise and growth hormone: Does one affect the other? Pt 2. J. Pediatr. 1997;131:S75–S80.
    doi: 10.1016/S0022-3476(97)70017-9pubmed: 9255234google scholar: lookup
  81. Troutt J.S, Rudling M, Persson L, Ståhle L, Angelin B, Butterfield A.M, Schade A.E, Cao G, Konrad R.J. Circulating human hepcidin-25 concentrations display a diurnal rhythm, increase with prolonged fasting, and are reduced by growth hormone administration. Clin. Chem. 2012;58:1225–1232.
    doi: 10.1373/clinchem.2012.186866pubmed: 22679180google scholar: lookup
  82. Krygier A, Szczepanek-Parulska E, Cieślewicz M, Wrotkowska E, Chanaj-Kaczmarek J, Ruchała M. Iron Homeostasis and Hepcidin Concentration in Patients With Acromegaly. Front. Endocrinol. 2022;12:788247.
    doi: 10.3389/fendo.2021.788247pmc: PMC8863047pubmed: 35211089google scholar: lookup
  83. Goodnough J.B, Ramos E, Nemeth E, Ganz T. Inhibition of hepcidin transcription by growth factors. Hepatology 2012;56:291–299.
    doi: 10.1002/hep.25615pmc: PMC3362690pubmed: 22278715google scholar: lookup
  84. Solberg A, Reikvam H. Iron Status and Physical Performance in Athletes. Life 2023;13:2007.
    doi: 10.3390/life13102007pmc: PMC10608302pubmed: 37895389google scholar: lookup
  85. Fallon K.E. Utility of hematological and iron-related screening in elite athletes. Clin. J. Sport Med. 2004;14:145–152.
    doi: 10.1097/00042752-200405000-00007pubmed: 15166903google scholar: lookup
  86. DellaValle D.M, Haas J.D. Iron supplementation improves energetic efficiency in iron-depleted female rowers. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2014;46:1204–1215.
    doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000208pubmed: 24195864google scholar: lookup
  87. McKay A.K.A, Sim M, Moretti D, Hall R, Stellingwerff T, Burden R.J, Peeling P. Methodological Considerations for Investigating Iron Status and Regulation in Exercise and Sport Science Studies. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2022;32:359–370.
    doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.2021-0343pubmed: 35365588google scholar: lookup
  88. Satué K, Fazio E, La Fauci D, Medica P. Hematological indexes and iron status in pregnant mares. Arch. Anim. Breed. 2023;66:197–205.
    doi: 10.5194/aab-66-197-2023pmc: PMC10407308pubmed: 37560356google scholar: lookup
  89. Animal Health Diagnostic Center. [(accessed on 7 January 2024)]. Available online: https://www.vet.cornell.edu/animal-health-diagnostic-center/laboratories/clinical-pathology/reference-intervals/chemistry.
  90. Burlikowska K, Bogusławska-Tryk M, Szymeczko R, Piotrowska A. Haematological and biochemical blood parameters in horses used for sport and recreation. J. Cent. Eur. Agric. 2015;16:370–382.
    doi: 10.5513/JCEA01/16.4.1634google scholar: lookup
  91. Mills P.C, Smith N.C, Casas I, Harris P, Harris R.C, Marlin D.J. Effects of exercise intensity and environmental stress on indices of oxidative stress and iron homeostasis during exercise in the horse. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 1996;74:60–66.
    doi: 10.1007/BF00376495pubmed: 8891501google scholar: lookup
  92. Bollinger L, Bartel A, Weber C, Gehlen H. Pre-Ride Biomarkers and Endurance Horse Welfare: Analyzing the Impact of the Elimination of Superoxide Dismutase, δ-Aminolevulinic-Dehydratase, Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances, Iron, and Serum Amyloid A Levels in Elite 160 km Endurance Rides. Animals 2023;13:1670.
    doi: 10.3390/ani13101670pmc: PMC10215937pubmed: 37238102google scholar: lookup
  93. Hyyppä S, Höyhtyä M, Nevalainen M, Pösö A.R. Effect of exercise on plasma ferritin concentrations: Implications for the measurement of iron status. Equine Vet. J. Suppl. 2002;34:186–190.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2002.tb05416.xpubmed: 12405684google scholar: lookup
  94. Assenza A, Congiu F, Giannetto C, Fazio F, Piccione G. Serum iron, ferritin, transferrin and haptoglobin concentration variations during repeated show jumping competition in horse. Acta Vet. Brno. 2017;85:343–347.
    doi: 10.2754/avb201685040343google scholar: lookup
  95. Piccione G, Rizzo M, Arfuso F, Bruschetta D, Giudice E, Assenza A. Iron Metabolism Modification During Repeated Show Jumping Event in Equine Athletes. Ann. Anim. Sci. 2017;17:197–204.
    doi: 10.1515/aoas-2016-0051google scholar: lookup
  96. Abramovitc G, Parra A.C, Fernandes W.R. Changes in iron levels, total iron binding capacity, transferrin saturation in race horses, before and after of physical exercise. Braz. J. Vet. Med. 2014;36:289–293.
  97. Assenza A, Casella S, Giannetto C, Fazio F, Tosto F, Piccione G. Iron profile in Thoroughbreds during a standard training program. Aust. Vet. J. 2016;94:60–63.
    doi: 10.1111/avj.12413pubmed: 26914950google scholar: lookup
  98. Inoue Y, Osawa T, Matsui A, Asai Y, Murakami Y, Matsui T, Yano H. Changes of Serum Mineral Concentrations in Horses during Exercise. Anim. Biosci. 2002;15:531–536.
    doi: 10.5713/ajas.2002.531google scholar: lookup
  99. Ohira Y, Kariya F, Yasui W, Sugawara S, Koyanagi K, Kaihatsu K, Inoue N, Hirata F, Chen C, Ohno H. Physical exercise and iron metabolism. 1995. pp. 5–12.
  100. Allen K.J, van Erck-Westergren E, Franklin S.H. Exercise Testing in the Equine Athlete. Equine Vet. Educ. 2016;28:89–98.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12410google scholar: lookup
  101. Hoes M.F, Grote Beverborg N, Kijlstra J.D, Kuipers J, Swinkels D.W, Giepmans B.N.G, Rodenburg R.J, van Veldhuisen D.J, de Boer R.A, van der Meer P. Iron deficiency impairs contractility of human cardiomyocytes through decreased mitochondrial function. Eur. J. Heart Fail. 2018;20:910–919.
    doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1154pmc: PMC5993224pubmed: 29484788google scholar: lookup
  102. Theelen M.J.P, Beukers M, Grinwis G.C.M, Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan M.M. Chronic iron overload causing haemochromatosis and hepatopathy in 21 horses and one donkey. Equine Vet. J. 2019;51:304–309.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.13029pubmed: 30269378google scholar: lookup
  103. Pearson E.G, Andreasen C.B. Effect of oral administration of excessive iron in adult ponies. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2001;218:400–404.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2001.218.400pubmed: 11201567google scholar: lookup
  104. McKeever K.H, Agans J.M, Geiser S, Lorimer P.J, Maylin G.A. Low dose exogenous erythropoietin elicits an ergogenic effect in standardbred horses. Equine Vet. J. Suppl. 2006;36:233–238.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2006.tb05545.xpubmed: 17402424google scholar: lookup
  105. McKeever K.H, Agans J.M, Geiser S, Scali R, Guirnalda P.D, Kearns C.F, Lorimer P.J. Effect of recombinant human erythropoietin administration on red cell volume, aerobic capacity and indices of performance in standardbred horses; Proceedings of the 16th Equine Nutrition and Physiology Symposium; Raleigh, NC, USA. 2–5 June 1999; pp. 163–164. .
  106. Wickler S.J, Greene H.M. High altitude acclimatization and athletic performance in horses. Equine Comp. Exerc. Physiol. 2004;1:167–170.
    doi: 10.1079/ECP200424google scholar: lookup
  107. Moerman W. Master’s Thesis. Ghent Ghent University; Ghent, Belgium: 2018. A Critical View on Hypoxia Training: Horse Versus Human. .
  108. Lewis L.D, Knight A, Lewis B. Equine Clinical Nutrition: Feedings and Care. .
  109. Auer D.E, Ng J.C, Thompson H.L, Inglis S, Seawright A.A. Acute phase response in horses: Changes in plasma cation concentrations after localised tissue injury. Vet. Rec. 1989;124:235–239.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.124.10.235pubmed: 2496517google scholar: lookup
  110. Fleming K.A, Barton M.H, Latimer K.S. Iron deficiency anemia in a neonatal foal. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2006;20:1495–1498.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2006.tb00773.xpubmed: 17186872google scholar: lookup
  111. Smith J.E, Cipriano J.E. Inflammation-induced changes in serum iron analytes and ceruloplasmin of Shetland ponies. Vet. Pathol. 1987;24:354–356.
    doi: 10.1177/030098588702400411pubmed: 3617401google scholar: lookup
  112. Borges A.S, Divers T.J, Stokol T, Mohammed O.H. Serum iron and plasma fibrinogen concentrations as indicators of systemic inflammatory diseases in horses. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2007;21:489–494.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2007.tb02995.xpubmed: 17552456google scholar: lookup
  113. Piccione G, Casella S, Giannetto C, Messina V, Monteverde V, Caola G, Guttadauro S. Haematological and haematochemical responses to training and competition in standardbred horses. Comp. Clin. Pathol. 2010;19:95–101.
    doi: 10.1007/s00580-009-0902-zgoogle scholar: lookup
  114. Wood S.C, Fedde M.R. Effects of racing and gender on viscoelastic properties of horse blood. Respir. Physiol. 1997;107:165–172.
    doi: 10.1016/S0034-5687(96)02518-2pubmed: 9108630google scholar: lookup
  115. Hassan H, Aly M, ELseady Y, Nayel M, Elsify A, Salama A, Hassan M, Elbarody E, Kamar A. The Effect of Race in the Clinical, Hematological and Biochemical Biomarkers in Thoroughbred Horses. Alex. J. Vet. Sci. 2015;46:161–169.
    doi: 10.5455/ajvs.190592google scholar: lookup
  116. Maśko M, Domino M, Jasiński T, Witkowska-Piłaszewicz O. The Physical Activity-Dependent Hematological and Biochemical Changes in School Horses in Comparison to Blood Profiles in Endurance and Race Horses. Animals 2021;11:1128.
    doi: 10.3390/ani11041128pmc: PMC8071065pubmed: 33920044google scholar: lookup
  117. Hinchcliff K.W, Kaneps A.J, Geor R.J. Equine Sports Medicine and Surgery: Basic and Clinical Sciences of the Equine Athlete. 2nd ed.. .
  118. Weiss D.J, Wardrop K.J. Schalm’s Veterinary Hematology. 6th ed.. .
  119. Padalino B, Rubino G, Lacinio R, Petazzi F. A New Classification to Diagnose Type of Anemia in Standardbred Horses: A Retrospective Study. JEVS 2016;44:21–25.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2016.03.004google scholar: lookup
  120. Kellon E.M. Equine Anaemia—It’s NOT About Iron Deficiency. Forageplus Talk. [(accessed on 28 May 2025)]. .
  121. Schryver H.F. Mineral and vitamin intoxication in horses. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 1990;6:295–318.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30543-6pubmed: 2202494google scholar: lookup
  122. Rose R.J, Allen J.R. Hematologic responses to exercise and training. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 1985;1:461–476.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30745-9pubmed: 3877551google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 100,129 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.