FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Vaccines (Basel) / Rationally Attenuated Vaccines for Venezuelan Equine Encepha...
Vaccines2020; 8(3); 497; doi: 10.3390/vaccines8030497

Rationally Attenuated Vaccines for Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Protect Against Epidemic Strains with a Single Dose.

Abstract: Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is a re-emerging virus of human, agriculture, and bioweapon threat importance. No FDA-approved treatment is available to combat Venezuelan equine encephalitis in humans, prompting the need to create a vaccine that is safe, efficacious, and cannot be replicated in the mosquito vector. Here we describe the use of a serotype ID VEEV (ZPC-738) vaccine with an internal ribosome entry site (IRES) to alter gene expression patterns. This ZPC/IRES vaccine was genetically engineered in two ways based on the position of the IRES insertion to create a vaccine that is safe and efficacious. After a single dose, both versions of the ZPC/IRES vaccine elicited neutralizing antibody responses in mice and non-human primates after a single dose, with more robust responses produced by version 2. Further, all mice and primates were protected from viremia following VEEV challenge. These vaccines were also safer in neonatal mice than the current investigational new drug vaccine, TC-83. These results show that IRES-based attenuation of alphavirus genomes consistently produce promising vaccine candidates, with VEEV/IRES version 2 showing promise for further development.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2020-09-02 PubMed ID: 32887313PubMed Central: PMC7563393DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8030497Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This research focuses on the development of a new vaccine, using an internal ribosome entry site (IRES), to protect against the Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV). According to the findings, this vaccine is safe, effective, and it cannot be replicated in the mosquito vector.

Research Overview

The research goal was to develop a vaccine for the Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV). This is a re-emerging virus that poses threats to human health and agriculture, and it has also been identified as a potential bioweapon. As currently, there are no FDA-approved treatments available to fight this disease in humans, a vaccine is crucial for prevention.

Vaccine Development

  • The VEEV serotype ID (ZPC-738) vaccine was used in this research. An Internal Ribosome Entry Site (IRES) was used to modify the gene expression patterns. The resulting modified vaccine is referred to as the ZPC/IRES vaccine.
  • The researchers engineered the ZPC/IRES vaccine in two different ways. The differentiating factor between the two methods was the position in which the IRES insertion was placed.
  • The purpose of these genetic modifications was to create a safe and effective vaccine that could not be replicated by mosquito vectors.

Vaccine Efficacy and Safety

  • Both versions of the ZPC/IRES vaccine were administered as a single dose to mice and non-human primates, and both produced neutralizing antibody responses – meaning the immune systems of the test subjects developed defense against the VEEV.
  • Version 2 of the ZPC/IRES vaccine was found to be more effective as it produced more robust immune responses.
  • All vaccinated mice and primates were protected from the disease when exposed to VEEV, signifying the vaccine’s effectiveness.
  • The ZPC/IRES vaccine also exhibited a higher level of safety in neonatal mice compared to the current investigational new drug vaccine, TC-83.

Conclusion

The research concluded that the use of IRES to attenuate alphavirus genomes is promising in the production of vaccines. Given its superior performance in these experiments, VEEV/IRES version 2 is highlighted as a promising candidate for further development and study.

Cite This Article

APA
Rossi SL, Russell-Lodrigue KE, Plante KS, Bergren NA, Gorchakov R, Roy CJ, Weaver SC. (2020). Rationally Attenuated Vaccines for Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Protect Against Epidemic Strains with a Single Dose. Vaccines (Basel), 8(3), 497. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8030497

Publication

Vaccines
ISSN: 2076-393X
NlmUniqueID: 101629355
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 8
Issue: 3
PII: 497

Researcher Affiliations

Rossi, Shannan L
  • Department of Pathology and Microbiology and Immunology, Institute for Human Infection and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
Russell-Lodrigue, Kasi E
  • Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA 70433, USA.
Plante, Kenneth S
  • Department of Microbiology and Immunology and World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
Bergren, Nicholas A
  • Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
Gorchakov, Rodion
  • Department of Health, Safety and Environment, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal 23955, Saudi Arabia.
Roy, Chad J
  • Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA 70433, USA.
  • Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA.
Weaver, Scott C
  • World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
  • Institute for Human Infection and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.
  • Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.

Grant Funding

  • P51 OD011104 / NIH HHS
  • OD011104 / ORIP NIH HHS
  • AI057156 / NIH HHS

Conflict of Interest Statement

R.G. and S.C.W. hold intellectual property related to the IRES-based attenuation of alphaviruses.

References

This article includes 43 references
  1. Weaver SC, Ferro C, Barrera R, Boshell J, Navarro JC. Venezuelan equine encephalitis.. Annu Rev Entomol 2004;49:141-74.
    doi: 10.1146/annurev.ento.49.061802.123422pubmed: 14651460google scholar: lookup
  2. Anishchenko M, Bowen RA, Paessler S, Austgen L, Greene IP, Weaver SC. Venezuelan encephalitis emergence mediated by a phylogenetically predicted viral mutation.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006 Mar 28;103(13):4994-9.
    doi: 10.1073/pnas.0509961103pmc: PMC1458783pubmed: 16549790google scholar: lookup
  3. Weaver SC, Salas R, Rico-Hesse R, Ludwig GV, Oberste MS, Boshell J, Tesh RB. Re-emergence of epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in South America. VEE Study Group.. Lancet 1996 Aug 17;348(9025):436-40.
    doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)02275-1pubmed: 8709783google scholar: lookup
  4. Levine BA, Nurudeen SK, Gosselin JT, Sauer MV, Aguilar PV, Estrada-Franco JG, Navarro-Lopez R, Ferro C, Haddow AD, Weaver S. Addressing the fertility needs of HIV-seropositive males.. Future Virol 2011;6:299–306.
    doi: 10.2217/fvl.11.5pubmed: 0google scholar: lookup
  5. Forshey BM, Guevara C, Laguna-Torres VA, Cespedes M, Vargas J, Gianella A, Vallejo E, Madrid C, Aguayo N, Gotuzzo E, Suarez V, Morales AM, Beingolea L, Reyes N, Perez J, Negrete M, Rocha C, Morrison AC, Russell KL, Blair PJ, Olson JG, Kochel TJ. Arboviral etiologies of acute febrile illnesses in Western South America, 2000-2007.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2010 Aug 10;4(8):e787.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000787pmc: PMC2919378pubmed: 20706628google scholar: lookup
  6. Rivas F, Diaz LA, Cardenas VM, Daza E, Bruzon L, Alcala A, De la Hoz O, Caceres FM, Aristizabal G, Martinez JW, Revelo D, De la Hoz F, Boshell J, Camacho T, Calderon L, Olano VA, Villarreal LI, Roselli D, Alvarez G, Ludwig G, Tsai T. Epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in La Guajira, Colombia, 1995.. J Infect Dis 1997 Apr;175(4):828-32.
    doi: 10.1086/513978pubmed: 9086137google scholar: lookup
  7. Bronze MS, Huycke MM, Machado LJ, Voskuhl GW, Greenfield RA. Viral agents as biological weapons and agents of bioterrorism.. Am J Med Sci 2002 Jun;323(6):316-25.
    doi: 10.1097/00000441-200206000-00004pubmed: 12074486google scholar: lookup
  8. Berge TO, Banks IS, Tigertt WD. Attenuation of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus by in vitro cultivation in guinea pig heart cells.. Am J Epidemiol 1961;73:209–218.
    doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a120178google scholar: lookup
  9. Walton TE, Alvarez O Jr, Buckwalter RM, Johnson KM. Experimental infection of horses with an attenuated Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis vaccine (strain TC-83).. Infect Immun 1972 May;5(5):750-6.
    doi: 10.1128/IAI.5.5.750-756.1972pmc: PMC422435pubmed: 4637604google scholar: lookup
  10. Walton TE, Luedke AJ, Jochim MM, Crenshaw GL, Ferguson JA. Duration of immunity of horses vaccinated with strain TC-83 Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus vaccine.. Proc Annu Meet U S Anim Health Assoc 1973;(77):196-202.
    pubmed: 4534711
  11. Pittman PR, Makuch RS, Mangiafico JA, Cannon TL, Gibbs PH, Peters CJ. Long-term duration of detectable neutralizing antibodies after administration of live-attenuated VEE vaccine and following booster vaccination with inactivated VEE vaccine.. Vaccine 1996 Mar;14(4):337-43.
    doi: 10.1016/0264-410X(95)00168-Zpubmed: 8744562google scholar: lookup
  12. Rayfield EJ, Gorelkin L, Curnow RT, Jahrling PB. Virus-induced pancreatic disease by Venezuelan encephalitis virus. Alterations in glucose tolerance and insulin release.. Diabetes 1976 Jul;25(7):623-31.
    doi: 10.2337/diab.25.7.623pubmed: 776726google scholar: lookup
  13. Bowen GS, Rayfield EJ, Monath TP, Kemp GE. Studies of glucose metabolism in rhesus monkeys after Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infection.. J Med Virol 1980;6(3):227-34.
    doi: 10.1002/jmv.1890060306pubmed: 7014785google scholar: lookup
  14. Kinney RM, Chang GJ, Tsuchiya KR, Sneider JM, Roehrig JT, Woodward TM, Trent DW. Attenuation of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus strain TC-83 is encoded by the 5'-noncoding region and the E2 envelope glycoprotein.. J Virol 1993 Mar;67(3):1269-77.
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.67.3.1269-1277.1993pmc: PMC237493pubmed: 7679745google scholar: lookup
  15. Davis NL, Brown KW, Greenwald GF, Zajac AJ, Zacny VL, Smith JF, Johnston RE. Attenuated mutants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus containing lethal mutations in the PE2 cleavage signal combined with a second-site suppressor mutation in E1.. Virology 1995 Sep 10;212(1):102-10.
    doi: 10.1006/viro.1995.1458pubmed: 7676619google scholar: lookup
  16. Kenney JL, Volk SM, Pandya J, Wang E, Liang X, Weaver SC. Stability of RNA virus attenuation approaches.. Vaccine 2011 Mar 9;29(12):2230-4.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.01.055pmc: PMC3060670pubmed: 21288800google scholar: lookup
  17. Martin SS, Bakken RR, Lind CM, Garcia P, Jenkins E, Glass PJ, Parker MD, Hart MK, Fine DL. Evaluation of formalin inactivated V3526 virus with adjuvant as a next generation vaccine candidate for Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus.. Vaccine 2010 Apr 19;28(18):3143-51.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.02.056pmc: PMC2857980pubmed: 20193792google scholar: lookup
  18. Dupuy LC, Richards MJ, Ellefsen B, Chau L, Luxembourg A, Hannaman D, Livingston BD, Schmaljohn CS. A DNA vaccine for venezuelan equine encephalitis virus delivered by intramuscular electroporation elicits high levels of neutralizing antibodies in multiple animal models and provides protective immunity to mice and nonhuman primates.. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2011 May;18(5):707-16.
    doi: 10.1128/CVI.00030-11pmc: PMC3122536pubmed: 21450977google scholar: lookup
  19. Hannaman D, Dupuy LC, Ellefsen B, Schmaljohn CS. A Phase 1 clinical trial of a DNA vaccine for Venezuelan equine encephalitis delivered by intramuscular or intradermal electroporation.. Vaccine 2016 Jun 30;34(31):3607-12.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.04.077pubmed: 27206386google scholar: lookup
  20. Paessler S, Fayzulin RZ, Anishchenko M, Greene IP, Weaver SC, Frolov I. Recombinant sindbis/Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus is highly attenuated and immunogenic.. J Virol 2003 Sep;77(17):9278-86.
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.77.17.9278-9286.2003pmc: PMC187387pubmed: 12915543google scholar: lookup
  21. Volkova E, Frolova E, Darwin JR, Forrester NL, Weaver SC, Frolov I. IRES-dependent replication of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus makes it highly attenuated and incapable of replicating in mosquito cells.. Virology 2008 Jul 20;377(1):160-9.
    doi: 10.1016/j.virol.2008.04.020pmc: PMC2483425pubmed: 18501401google scholar: lookup
  22. Guerbois M, Volkova E, Forrester NL, Rossi SL, Frolov I, Weaver SC. IRES-driven expression of the capsid protein of the Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus TC-83 vaccine strain increases its attenuation and safety.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013;7(5):e2197.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002197pmc: PMC3649961pubmed: 23675542google scholar: lookup
  23. Oberste MS, Schmura SM, Weaver SC, Smith JF. Geographic distribution of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus subtype IE genotypes in Central America and Mexico.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1999 Apr;60(4):630-4.
    doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1999.60.630pubmed: 10348239google scholar: lookup
  24. Rossi SL, Guerbois M, Gorchakov R, Plante KS, Forrester NL, Weaver SC. IRES-based Venezuelan equine encephalitis vaccine candidate elicits protective immunity in mice.. Virology 2013 Mar 15;437(2):81-8.
    doi: 10.1016/j.virol.2012.11.013pmc: PMC3767167pubmed: 23351391google scholar: lookup
  25. Rossi SL, Russell-Lodrigue KE, Killeen SZ, Wang E, Leal G, Bergren NA, Vinet-Oliphant H, Weaver SC, Roy CJ. IRES-Containing VEEV Vaccine Protects Cynomolgus Macaques from IE Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Aerosol Challenge.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015 May;9(5):e0003797.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003797pmc: PMC4447396pubmed: 26020513google scholar: lookup
  26. Oberste MS, Fraire M, Navarro R, Zepeda C, Zarate ML, Ludwig GV, Kondig JF, Weaver SC, Smith JF, Rico-Hesse R. Association of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus subtype IE with two equine epizootics in Mexico.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1998 Jul;59(1):100-7.
    doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1998.59.100pubmed: 9684636google scholar: lookup
  27. Powers AM, Oberste MS, Brault AC, Rico-Hesse R, Schmura SM, Smith JF, Kang W, Sweeney WP, Weaver SC. Repeated emergence of epidemic/epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis from a single genotype of enzootic subtype ID virus.. J Virol 1997 Sep;71(9):6697-705.
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.71.9.6697-6705.1997pmc: PMC191949pubmed: 9261393google scholar: lookup
  28. Hart MK, Lind C, Bakken R, Robertson M, Tammariello R, Ludwig GV. Onset and duration of protective immunity to IA/IB and IE strains of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in vaccinated mice.. Vaccine 2001 Nov 12;20(3-4):616-22.
    doi: 10.1016/S0264-410X(01)00337-1pubmed: 11672929google scholar: lookup
  29. Reed DS, Lind CM, Lackemeyer MG, Sullivan LJ, Pratt WD, Parker MD. Genetically engineered, live, attenuated vaccines protect nonhuman primates against aerosol challenge with a virulent IE strain of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus.. Vaccine 2005 May 2;23(24):3139-47.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2004.12.023pubmed: 15837213google scholar: lookup
  30. Barrera R, Torres N, Freier JE, Navarro JC, García CZ, Salas R, Vasquez C, Weaver SC. Characterization of enzootic foci of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in western Venezuela.. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2001 Fall;1(3):219-30.
    doi: 10.1089/153036601753552585pubmed: 12653150google scholar: lookup
  31. Forrester NL, Wertheim JO, Dugan VG, Auguste AJ, Lin D, Adams AP, Chen R, Gorchakov R, Leal G, Estrada-Franco JG, Pandya J, Halpin RA, Hari K, Jain R, Stockwell TB, Das SR, Wentworth DE, Smith MD, Kosakovsky Pond SL, Weaver SC. Evolution and spread of Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex alphavirus in the Americas.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017 Aug;11(8):e0005693.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005693pmc: PMC5557581pubmed: 28771475google scholar: lookup
  32. Anishchenko M, Paessler S, Greene IP, Aguilar PV, Carrara AS, Weaver SC. Generation and characterization of closely related epizootic and enzootic infectious cDNA clones for studying interferon sensitivity and emergence mechanisms of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus.. J Virol 2004 Jan;78(1):1-8.
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.78.1.1-8.2004pmc: PMC303380pubmed: 14671082google scholar: lookup
  33. Brault AC, Powers AM, Weaver SC. Vector infection determinants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus reside within the E2 envelope glycoprotein.. J Virol 2002 Jun;76(12):6387-92.
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.76.12.6387-6392.2002pmc: PMC136209pubmed: 12021373google scholar: lookup
  34. Roy CJ, Adams AP, Wang E, Leal G, Seymour RL, Sivasubramani SK, Mega W, Frolov I, Didier PJ, Weaver SC. A chimeric Sindbis-based vaccine protects cynomolgus macaques against a lethal aerosol challenge of eastern equine encephalitis virus.. Vaccine 2013 Mar 1;31(11):1464-70.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.01.014pmc: PMC3581708pubmed: 23333212google scholar: lookup
  35. Pandya J, Gorchakov R, Wang E, Leal G, Weaver SC. A vaccine candidate for eastern equine encephalitis virus based on IRES-mediated attenuation.. Vaccine 2012 Feb 8;30(7):1276-82.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.12.121pmc: PMC3283035pubmed: 22222869google scholar: lookup
  36. Plante K, Wang E, Partidos CD, Weger J, Gorchakov R, Tsetsarkin K, Borland EM, Powers AM, Seymour R, Stinchcomb DT, Osorio JE, Frolov I, Weaver SC. Novel chikungunya vaccine candidate with an IRES-based attenuation and host range alteration mechanism.. PLoS Pathog 2011 Jul;7(7):e1002142.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002142pmc: PMC3145802pubmed: 21829348google scholar: lookup
  37. Weise WJ, Hermance ME, Forrester N, Adams AP, Langsjoen R, Gorchakov R, Wang E, Alcorn MD, Tsetsarkin K, Weaver SC. A novel live-attenuated vaccine candidate for mayaro Fever.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014 Aug;8(8):e2969.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002969pmc: PMC4125120pubmed: 25101995google scholar: lookup
  38. Plante KS, Rossi SL, Bergren NA, Seymour RL, Weaver SC. Extended Preclinical Safety, Efficacy and Stability Testing of a Live-attenuated Chikungunya Vaccine Candidate.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015;9(9):e0004007.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004007pmc: PMC4560411pubmed: 26340754google scholar: lookup
  39. Langsjoen RM, Haller SL, Roy CJ, Vinet-Oliphant H, Bergren NA, Erasmus JH, Livengood JA, Powell TD, Weaver SC, Rossi SL. Chikungunya Virus Strains Show Lineage-Specific Variations in Virulence and Cross-Protective Ability in Murine and Nonhuman Primate Models.. mBio 2018 Mar 6;9(2).
    doi: 10.1128/mBio.02449-17pmc: PMC5844994pubmed: 29511072google scholar: lookup
  40. Roy CJ, Adams AP, Wang E, Plante K, Gorchakov R, Seymour RL, Vinet-Oliphant H, Weaver SC. Chikungunya vaccine candidate is highly attenuated and protects nonhuman primates against telemetrically monitored disease following a single dose.. J Infect Dis 2014 Jun 15;209(12):1891-9.
    doi: 10.1093/infdis/jiu014pmc: PMC4038141pubmed: 24403555google scholar: lookup
  41. Bear JS, Byrnes AP, Griffin DE. Heparin-binding and patterns of virulence for two recombinant strains of Sindbis virus.. Virology 2006 Mar 30;347(1):183-90.
    doi: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.11.034pubmed: 16380143google scholar: lookup
  42. Klimstra WB, Ryman KD, Johnston RE. Adaptation of Sindbis virus to BHK cells selects for use of heparan sulfate as an attachment receptor.. J Virol 1998 Sep;72(9):7357-66.
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.72.9.7357-7366.1998pmc: PMC109960pubmed: 9696832google scholar: lookup
  43. Wang E, Brault AC, Powers AM, Kang W, Weaver SC. Glycosaminoglycan binding properties of natural venezuelan equine encephalitis virus isolates.. J Virol 2003 Jan;77(2):1204-10.
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.77.2.1204-1210.2003pmc: PMC140800pubmed: 12502837google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 5 times.
  1. Sutton MS, Pletnev S, Callahan V, Ko S, Tsybovsky Y, Bylund T, Casner RG, Cerutti G, Gardner CL, Guirguis V, Verardi R, Zhang B, Ambrozak D, Beddall M, Lei H, Yang ES, Liu T, Henry AR, Rawi R, Schön A, Schramm CA, Shen CH, Shi W, Stephens T, Yang Y, Florez MB, Ledgerwood JE, Burke CW, Shapiro L, Fox JM, Kwong PD, Roederer M. Vaccine elicitation and structural basis for antibody protection against alphaviruses.. Cell 2023 Jun 8;186(12):2672-2689.e25.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2023.05.019pubmed: 37295404google scholar: lookup
  2. Wang H, Liu S, Lv Y, Wei W. Codon usage bias of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus and its host adaption.. Virus Res 2023 Apr 15;328:199081.
    doi: 10.1016/j.virusres.2023.199081pubmed: 36854361google scholar: lookup
  3. Ayers VB, Huang YS, Dunlop JI, Kohl A, Brennan B, Higgs S, Vanlandingham DL. Replication Kinetics of a Candidate Live-Attenuated Vaccine for Cache Valley Virus in Aedes albopictus.. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2022 Nov;22(11):553-558.
    doi: 10.1089/vbz.2022.0053pubmed: 36354965google scholar: lookup
  4. Torres-Ruesta A, Chee RS, Ng LFP. Insights into Antibody-Mediated Alphavirus Immunity and Vaccine Development Landscape.. Microorganisms 2021 Apr 22;9(5).
    doi: 10.3390/microorganisms9050899pubmed: 33922370google scholar: lookup
  5. Read CM, Plante K, Rafael G, Rossi SL, Braun W, Weaver SC, Schein CH. Designing multivalent immunogens for alphavirus vaccine optimization.. Virology 2021 Sep;561:117-124.
    doi: 10.1016/j.virol.2020.11.010pubmed: 33823988google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,357 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.