FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / PLoS One / The influence of meteorology on the spread of influenza: sur...
PloS one2012; 7(4); e35284; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0035284

The influence of meteorology on the spread of influenza: survival analysis of an equine influenza (A/H3N8) outbreak.

Abstract: The influences of relative humidity and ambient temperature on the transmission of influenza A viruses have recently been established under controlled laboratory conditions. The interplay of meteorological factors during an actual influenza epidemic is less clear, and research into the contribution of wind to epidemic spread is scarce. By applying geostatistics and survival analysis to data from a large outbreak of equine influenza (A/H3N8), we quantified the association between hazard of infection and air temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, and wind velocity, whilst controlling for premises-level covariates. The pattern of disease spread in space and time was described using extraction mapping and instantaneous hazard curves. Meteorological conditions at each premises location were estimated by kriging daily meteorological data and analysed as time-lagged time-varying predictors using generalised Cox regression. Meteorological covariates time-lagged by three days were strongly associated with hazard of influenza infection, corresponding closely with the incubation period of equine influenza. Hazard of equine influenza infection was higher when relative humidity was 30 km hour(-1) from the direction of nearby infected premises were associated with increased hazard of infection. Through combining detailed influenza outbreak and meteorological data, we provide empirical evidence for the underlying environmental mechanisms that influenced the local spread of an outbreak of influenza A. Our analysis supports, and extends, the findings of studies into influenza A transmission conducted under laboratory conditions. The relationships described are of direct importance for managing disease risk during influenza outbreaks in horses, and more generally, advance our understanding of the transmission of influenza A viruses under field conditions.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2012-04-20 PubMed ID: 22536366PubMed Central: PMC3335077DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0035284Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Research Support
  • Non-U.S. Gov't

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The study focuses on understanding the influence of weather conditions on the spread of a strain of influenza, specifically equine influenza (A/H3N8), during an outbreak. The researchers found that weather elements such as air temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, and wind velocity have a significant impact on the rate of infection.

Study Objective and Methods

  • The objective of the research was to examine how factors like temperature, humidity, rainfall, and wind speed, affect the transmission and spread of equine influenza (A/H3N8). This was intended to validate and expand on the knowledge gained from previous laboratory studies on influenza A viruses.
  • The study used geostatistics and survival analysis applied to data from a large outbreak of equine influenza. This method allowed the researchers to evaluate the association between infection risk and various meteorological conditions while controlling for factors specific to each premises.
  • The spread of the disease was analysed spatially and temporally using extraction mapping and instantaneous hazard curves.

Results and Findings

  • The study determined that meteorological elements present three days before were strongly associated with the risk of influenza infection. This aligns with the known incubation period of equine influenza.
  • Relative humidity less than 60% and temperatures between 20-25°C were associated with the highest risk of infection.
  • High wind speeds, especially winds coming from the direction of infected premises, significantly increased the risk of infection. Specifically, wind speeds exceeding 30 km/hour were identified as a contributing factor to the spread of the virus.

Implications of the Study

  • The research provides an empirical basis for understanding how environmental conditions influence the spread of the influenza A virus. This gives us improved insights into the viral transmission dynamics under real-world field conditions.
  • This study is important for controlling and managing disease risk during influenza outbreaks in horses. By extension, it can also provide valuable insights for managing other outbreaks of influenza A viruses.

To sum up, the findings reinforce the notion that weather can significantly influence the spread of influenza A viruses. This information can be used to manage and mitigate the impact of future outbreaks.

Cite This Article

APA
Firestone SM, Cogger N, Ward MP, Toribio JA, Moloney BJ, Dhand NK. (2012). The influence of meteorology on the spread of influenza: survival analysis of an equine influenza (A/H3N8) outbreak. PLoS One, 7(4), e35284. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035284

Publication

PloS one
ISSN: 1932-6203
NlmUniqueID: 101285081
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 7
Issue: 4
Pages: e35284
PII: e35284

Researcher Affiliations

Firestone, Simon M
  • Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, New South Wales, Australia. simon.firestone@sydney.edu.au
Cogger, Naomi
    Ward, Michael P
      Toribio, Jenny-Ann L M L
        Moloney, Barbara J
          Dhand, Navneet K

            MeSH Terms

            • Animals
            • Australia / epidemiology
            • Contact Tracing
            • Disease Outbreaks
            • Horse Diseases / mortality
            • Horse Diseases / transmission
            • Horse Diseases / virology
            • Horses
            • Humidity
            • Influenza A Virus, H3N8 Subtype
            • Multivariate Analysis
            • Orthomyxoviridae Infections / mortality
            • Orthomyxoviridae Infections / transmission
            • Orthomyxoviridae Infections / veterinary
            • Orthomyxoviridae Infections / virology
            • Proportional Hazards Models
            • Rain
            • Survival Analysis
            • Wind

            Conflict of Interest Statement

            The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

            References

            This article includes 72 references
            1. Belser JA, Maines TR, Tumpey TM, Katz JM. Influenza A virus transmission: contributing factors and clinical implications.. Expert Rev Mol Med 2010 Dec 9;12:e39.
              pubmed: 21144091doi: 10.1017/s1462399410001705google scholar: lookup
            2. Myers C, Wilson WD. Equine influenza virus. Clinical Techniques in Equine Practice 2006;5:187–196.
            3. Alexander DJ. An overview of the epidemiology of avian influenza.. Vaccine 2007 Jul 26;25(30):5637-44.
              pubmed: 17126960doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.10.051google scholar: lookup
            4. Tellier R. Aerosol transmission of influenza A virus: a review of new studies.. J R Soc Interface 2009 Dec 6;6 Suppl 6(Suppl 6):S783-90.
              pmc: PMC2843947pubmed: 19773292doi: 10.1098/rsif.2009.0302.focusgoogle scholar: lookup
            5. Weber TP, Stilianakis NI. Inactivation of influenza A viruses in the environment and modes of transmission: a critical review.. J Infect 2008 Nov;57(5):361-73.
              pmc: PMC7112701pubmed: 18848358doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2008.08.013google scholar: lookup
            6. Lowen AC, Mubareka S, Steel J, Palese P. Influenza virus transmission is dependent on relative humidity and temperature.. PLoS Pathog 2007 Oct 19;3(10):1470-6.
              pmc: PMC2034399pubmed: 17953482doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.0030151google scholar: lookup
            7. Murray EJ, Morse SS. Seasonal oscillation of human infection with influenza A/H5N1 in Egypt and Indonesia.. PLoS One 2011;6(9):e24042.
              pmc: PMC3164700pubmed: 21909409doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024042google scholar: lookup
            8. Steel J, Palese P, Lowen AC. Transmission of a 2009 pandemic influenza virus shows a sensitivity to temperature and humidity similar to that of an H3N2 seasonal strain.. J Virol 2011 Feb;85(3):1400-2.
              pmc: PMC3020521pubmed: 21084485doi: 10.1128/jvi.02186-10google scholar: lookup
            9. Fang LQ, de Vlas SJ, Liang S, Looman CW, Gong P, Xu B, Yan L, Yang H, Richardus JH, Cao WC. Environmental factors contributing to the spread of H5N1 avian influenza in mainland China.. PLoS One 2008 May 28;3(5):e2268.
              pmc: PMC2386237pubmed: 18509468doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0002268google scholar: lookup
            10. Lowen AC, Steel J, Mubareka S, Palese P. High temperature (30 degrees C) blocks aerosol but not contact transmission of influenza virus.. J Virol 2008 Jun;82(11):5650-2.
              pmc: PMC2395183pubmed: 18367530doi: 10.1128/jvi.00325-08google scholar: lookup
            11. Bean B, Moore BM, Sterner B, Peterson LR, Gerding DN, Balfour HH Jr. Survival of influenza viruses on environmental surfaces.. J Infect Dis 1982 Jul;146(1):47-51.
              pubmed: 6282993doi: 10.1093/infdis/146.1.47google scholar: lookup
            12. Yadav MP, Uppal PK, Mumford JA. Physico-chemical and biological characterization of A/Equi-2 virus isolated from 1987 equine influenza epidemic in India. International Journal of Animal Sciences 1993;8:93–98.
            13. Davis J, Garner MG, East IJ. Analysis of local spread of equine influenza in the Park Ridge region of Queensland.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2009 Mar;56(1-2):31-8.
              pubmed: 19200296doi: 10.1111/j.1865-1682.2008.01060.xgoogle scholar: lookup
            14. Kedmi M, Herziger Y, Galon N, Cohen RM, Perel M, Batten C, Braverman Y, Gottlieb Y, Shpigel N, Klement E. The association of winds with the spread of EHDV in dairy cattle in Israel during an outbreak in 2006.. Prev Vet Med 2010 Sep 1;96(3-4):152-60.
              pubmed: 20619907doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2010.06.008google scholar: lookup
            15. du Prel JB, Puppe W, Gröndahl B, Knuf M, Weigl JA, Schaaff F, Schmitt HJ. Are meteorological parameters associated with acute respiratory tract infections?. Clin Infect Dis 2009 Sep 15;49(6):861-8.
              pubmed: 19663691doi: 10.1086/605435google scholar: lookup
            16. Yuan J, Yun H, Lan W, Wang W, Sullivan SG, Jia S, Bittles AH. A climatologic investigation of the SARS-CoV outbreak in Beijing, China.. Am J Infect Control 2006 May;34(4):234-6.
              pmc: PMC7115332pubmed: 16679182doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2005.12.006google scholar: lookup
            17. Gloster J, Burgin L, Jones A, Sanson R. Atmospheric dispersion models and their use in the assessment of disease transmission.. Rev Sci Tech 2011 Aug;30(2):457-65.
              pubmed: 21961218doi: 10.20506/rst.30.2.2055google scholar: lookup
            18. Charland KM, Buckeridge DL, Sturtevant JL, Melton F, Reis BY, Mandl KD, Brownstein JS. Effect of environmental factors on the spatio-temporal patterns of influenza spread.. Epidemiol Infect 2009 Oct;137(10):1377-87.
              pubmed: 19296868doi: 10.1017/s0950268809002283google scholar: lookup
            19. Shoji M, Katayama K, Sano K. Absolute humidity as a deterministic factor affecting seasonal influenza epidemics in Japan.. Tohoku J Exp Med 2011 Aug;224(4):251-6.
              pubmed: 21705850doi: 10.1620/tjem.224.251google scholar: lookup
            20. Chan TC, King CC, Yen MY, Chiang PH, Huang CS, Hsiao CK. Probabilistic daily ILI syndromic surveillance with a spatio-temporal Bayesian hierarchical model.. PLoS One 2010 Jul 16;5(7):e11626.
              pmc: PMC2905374pubmed: 20661275doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0011626google scholar: lookup
            21. Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing. Australian Health Management Plan for Pandemic Influenza (December 2009 update). 2010.
            22. Animal Health Australia. Disease strategy: Equine influenza (Version 3.1). 2011.
            23. McQueen JL, Davenport FM, Keeran RJ, Dawson HA. Studies of equine influenza in Michigan, 1963. II. Epizootiology.. Am J Epidemiol 1966 Mar;83(2):280-6.
              pubmed: 5948842doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a120584google scholar: lookup
            24. Mumford JA, Wilson H, Hannant D, Jessett DM. Antigenicity and immunogenicity of equine influenza vaccines containing a Carbomer adjuvant.. Epidemiol Infect 1994 Apr;112(2):421-37.
              pmc: PMC2271453pubmed: 8150017doi: 10.1017/s0950268800057848google scholar: lookup
            25. Paillot R, Hannant D, Kydd JH, Daly JM. Vaccination against equine influenza: quid novi?. Vaccine 2006 May 8;24(19):4047-61.
              pubmed: 16545507doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.02.030google scholar: lookup
            26. Mumford JA, Hannant D, Jessett DM. Experimental infection of ponies with equine influenza (H3N8) viruses by intranasal inoculation or exposure to aerosols.. Equine Vet J 1990 Mar;22(2):93-8.
              pubmed: 2156688doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1990.tb04217.xgoogle scholar: lookup
            27. Callinan I. Equine influenza - the August 2007 outbreak in Australia. 2008.
            28. Garner MG, Cowled B, East IJ, Moloney BJ, Kung NY. Evaluating the effectiveness of early vaccination in the control and eradication of equine influenza--a modelling approach.. Prev Vet Med 2011 Apr 1;99(1):15-27.
              pubmed: 20236718doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2010.02.007google scholar: lookup
            29. Firestone SM, Ward MP, Christley RM, Dhand NK. The importance of location in contact networks: Describing early epidemic spread using spatial social network analysis.. Prev Vet Med 2011 Dec 1;102(3):185-95.
              pubmed: 21852007doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.07.006google scholar: lookup
            30. Moloney B, Sergeant ES, Taragel C, Buckley P. Significant features of the epidemiology of equine influenza in New South Wales, Australia, 2007.. Aust Vet J 2011 Jul;89 Suppl 1:56-63.
              pubmed: 21711291doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2011.00749.xgoogle scholar: lookup
            31. Cowled B, Ward MP, Hamilton S, Garner G. The equine influenza epidemic in Australia: spatial and temporal descriptive analyses of a large propagating epidemic.. Prev Vet Med 2009 Nov 1;92(1-2):60-70.
              pubmed: 19748691doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2009.08.006google scholar: lookup
            32. Firestone SM, Christley RM, Ward MP, Dhand NK. Adding the spatial dimension to the social network analysis of an epidemic: investigation of the 2007 outbreak of equine influenza in Australia.. Prev Vet Med 2012 Sep 15;106(2):123-35.
              doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2012.01.020pmc: PMC7126086pubmed: 22365721google scholar: lookup
            33. Firestone SM, Schemann KA, Toribio JA, Ward MP, Dhand NK. A case-control study of risk factors for equine influenza spread onto horse premises during the 2007 epidemic in Australia.. Prev Vet Med 2011 Jun 1;100(1):53-63.
              pubmed: 21481961doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.03.002google scholar: lookup
            34. East IJ. The role of land use patterns in limiting the spread of equine influenza in Queensland during the 2007 Australian epidemic.. Aust Vet J 2011 Jul;89 Suppl 1:88-9.
              pubmed: 21711299doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2011.00756.xgoogle scholar: lookup
            35. Dohoo I, Martin W, Stryhn H. Veterinary epidemiologic research, 2nd Edition. 2009.
            36. Foord AJ, Selleck P, Colling A, Klippel J, Middleton D, Heine HG. Real-time RT-PCR for detection of equine influenza and evaluation using samples from horses infected with A/equine/Sydney/2007 (H3N8).. Vet Microbiol 2009 May 28;137(1-2):1-9.
              pubmed: 19153018doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2008.12.006google scholar: lookup
            37. R Development Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. 2011.
            38. Davies TM, Hazelton ML. Adaptive kernel estimation of spatial relative risk.. Stat Med 2010 Oct 15;29(23):2423-37.
              pubmed: 20603814doi: 10.1002/sim.3995google scholar: lookup
            39. Davies TM, Hazelton ML, Marshall JC. sparr: Analyzing Spatial Relative Risk Using Fixed and Adaptive Kernel Density Estimation in R. Journal of Statistical Software 2011;39:1–14.
            40. Ward MP, Carpenter TE. Techniques for analysis of disease clustering in space and in time in veterinary epidemiology.. Prev Vet Med 2000 Jun 12;45(3-4):257-84.
              pubmed: 10821965doi: 10.1016/s0167-5877(00)00133-1google scholar: lookup
            41. Anderson PK, Gill RD. Cox's Regression Model for Counting Processes: A Large Sample Study. The Annals of Statistics 1982;10:1100–1120.
            42. Hosmer DW, Lemeshow S, May S. Applied survival analysis: Regression modeling of time-to-event data, 2nd ed. 2008.
            43. Allison PD. Survival Analysis Using SAS: A Practical Guide. Second Edition. 2010.
            44. Therneau TM, Grambsch PM. Modeling Survival Data: Extending the Cox Model. 2000.
            45. Geoscience Australia. GEODATA 9 Second Digital Elevation Model, Version 3 and flow direction grid. 2008.
            46. Geoscience Australia. Geodata TOPO-250K series 3. 2006.
            47. Center for International Earth Science Information Network, International Food Policy Research Institute, The World Bank, Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical. Global Rural-Urban Mapping Project (GRUMPv3): Urban Extents Data Collection, Alpha Version 3. 2011.
            48. World Bank. World Development Indicators online data catalogue. 2011.
            49. Matheron G. Principles of geostatistics. Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists 1963;58:1246–1266.
            50. Journel AG, Huijbregts C. Mining geostatistics. 1978.
            51. Inggs MR, Lord RT. Interpolating satellite derived wind field data using Ordinary Kriging, with application to the nadir gap. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 1996;34:250–256.
            52. Daly JM, MacRae S, Newton JR, Wattrang E, Elton DM. Equine influenza: a review of an unpredictable virus.. Vet J 2011 Jul;189(1):7-14.
              pubmed: 20685140doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.06.026google scholar: lookup
            53. Faehrmann P, Riddell K, Read AJ. Longitudinal study describing the clinical signs observed in horses naturally infected with equine influenza.. Aust Vet J 2011 Jul;89 Suppl 1:22-3.
              pubmed: 21711276doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2011.00733.xgoogle scholar: lookup
            54. Wong D. Equine influenza: a clinical perspective in Centennial Parklands Equestrian Centre.. Aust Vet J 2011 Jul;89 Suppl 1:15-6.
              pubmed: 21711272doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2011.00728.xgoogle scholar: lookup
            55. Dups JN, Morton JM, Anthony ND, Dwyer JF. Clinical signs of equine influenza in a closed population of horses at a 3-day event in southern Queensland, Australia.. Aust Vet J 2011 Jul;89 Suppl 1:17-8.
              pubmed: 21711274doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2011.00729.xgoogle scholar: lookup
            56. Stevenson M, Sanchez J, Thornton R. epiR: Functions for analysing epidemiological data. R package version 0.9-27. 2010.
            57. Harrell FE. Regression Modeling Strategies With Applications to Linear Models Logistic Regression, and Survival Analysis. 2001.
            58. Armitage P, Berry G, Matthews JNS. Statistical Methods in Medical Research, 4th Edition. 2001.
            59. Therneau TM, Grambsch PM, Fleming TR. Martingale-based residuals for survival models. Biometrika 1990;77:147–160.
            60. von Klot S, Gryparis A, Tonne C, Yanosky J, Coull BA, Goldberg RJ, Lessard D, Melly SJ, Suh HH, Schwartz J. Elemental carbon exposure at residence and survival after acute myocardial infarction.. Epidemiology 2009 Jul;20(4):547-54.
              pubmed: 19289965doi: 10.1097/ede.0b013e31819d9501google scholar: lookup
            61. Tellier R. Review of aerosol transmission of influenza A virus.. Emerg Infect Dis 2006 Nov;12(11):1657-62.
              pmc: PMC3372341pubmed: 17283614doi: 10.3201/eid1211.060426google scholar: lookup
            62. HEMMES JH, WINKLER KC, KOOL SM. Virus survival as a seasonal factor in influenza and polimyelitis.. Nature 1960 Oct 29;188:430-1.
              pubmed: 13713229doi: 10.1038/188430a0google scholar: lookup
            63. Schaffer FL, Soergel ME, Straube DC. Survival of airborne influenza virus: effects of propagating host, relative humidity, and composition of spray fluids.. Arch Virol 1976;51(4):263-73.
              pubmed: 987765doi: 10.1007/bf01317930google scholar: lookup
            64. McDevitt J, Rudnick S, First M, Spengler J. Role of absolute humidity in the inactivation of influenza viruses on stainless steel surfaces at elevated temperatures.. Appl Environ Microbiol 2010 Jun;76(12):3943-7.
              pmc: PMC2893471pubmed: 20435770doi: 10.1128/aem.02674-09google scholar: lookup
            65. Shaman J, Kohn M. Absolute humidity modulates influenza survival, transmission, and seasonality.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009 Mar 3;106(9):3243-8.
              pmc: PMC2651255pubmed: 19204283doi: 10.1073/pnas.0806852106google scholar: lookup
            66. Wood J, Smith KC, Daly JM, Newton JR. Viral infections of the equine respiratory tract. 2007.
            67. Ma E, Lam T, Wong C, Chuang SK. Is hand, foot and mouth disease associated with meteorological parameters?. Epidemiol Infect 2010 Dec;138(12):1779-88.
              pubmed: 20875200doi: 10.1017/s0950268810002256google scholar: lookup
            68. Garner MG, Cannon RM. Potential for wind-borne spread of foot-and-mouth disease virus in Australia. 1995.
            69. Gloster J, Jones A, Redington A, Burgin L, Sørensen JH, Turner R, Dillon M, Hullinger P, Simpson M, Astrup P, Garner G, Stewart P, D'Amours R, Sellers R, Paton D. Airborne spread of foot-and-mouth disease--model intercomparison.. Vet J 2010 Mar;183(3):278-86.
              pubmed: 19138867doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2008.11.011google scholar: lookup
            70. McGeady ML, Siak JS, Crowell RL. Survival of coxsackievirus B3 under diverse environmental conditions.. Appl Environ Microbiol 1979 May;37(5):972-7.
              pmc: PMC243334pubmed: 39495doi: 10.1128/aem.37.5.972-977.1979google scholar: lookup
            71. Diggle PJ, Ribeiro PJ. Model-based Geostatistics. Springer Series in Statistics .
            72. Dhand NK, Sergeant ES. Assessment of the proportion of under-reporting during the 2007 equine influenza outbreak in New South Wales, Australia.. Aust Vet J 2011 Jul;89 Suppl 1:73-4.
              pubmed: 21711295doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2011.00754.xgoogle scholar: lookup

            Citations

            This article has been cited 16 times.
            1. Yin J, Liu T, Tang F, Chen D, Sun L, Song S, Zhang S, Wu J, Li Z, Xing W, Wang X, Ding G. Effects of ambient temperature on influenza-like illness: A multicity analysis in Shandong Province, China, 2014-2017.. Front Public Health 2022;10:1095436.
              doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.1095436pubmed: 36699880google scholar: lookup
            2. Ma P, Tang X, Zhang L, Wang X, Wang W, Zhang X, Wang S, Zhou N. Influenza A and B outbreaks differed in their associations with climate conditions in Shenzhen, China.. Int J Biometeorol 2022 Jan;66(1):163-173.
              doi: 10.1007/s00484-021-02204-ypubmed: 34693474google scholar: lookup
            3. Chen C, Zhang X, Jiang D, Yan D, Guan Z, Zhou Y, Liu X, Huang C, Ding C, Lan L, Huang X, Li L, Yang S. Associations between Temperature and Influenza Activity: A National Time Series Study in China.. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021 Oct 15;18(20).
              doi: 10.3390/ijerph182010846pubmed: 34682590google scholar: lookup
            4. Min J. Does social trust slow down or speed up the transmission of COVID-19?. PLoS One 2020;15(12):e0244273.
              doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0244273pubmed: 33332467google scholar: lookup
            5. Dillon CF, Dillon MB. Multi-Scale Airborne Infectious Disease Transmission.. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021 Mar 1;87(4).
              doi: 10.1128/AEM.02314-20pubmed: 33277266google scholar: lookup
            6. Liu J, Chen E, Zhang Q, Shi P, Gao Y, Chen Y, Liu W, Qin Y, Shen Y, Shi C. The correlation between atmospheric visibility and influenza in Wuxi city, China.. Medicine (Baltimore) 2020 Aug 7;99(32):e21469.
              doi: 10.1097/MD.0000000000021469pubmed: 32769879google scholar: lookup
            7. Smit AJ, Fitchett JM, Engelbrecht FA, Scholes RJ, Dzhivhuho G, Sweijd NA. Winter Is Coming: A Southern Hemisphere Perspective of the Environmental Drivers of SARS-CoV-2 and the Potential Seasonality of COVID-19.. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020 Aug 5;17(16).
              doi: 10.3390/ijerph17165634pubmed: 32764257google scholar: lookup
            8. Jiang D, Wang Q, Bai Z, Qi H, Ma J, Liu W, Ding F, Li J. Could Environment Affect the Mutation of H1N1 Influenza Virus?. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020 Apr 29;17(9).
              doi: 10.3390/ijerph17093092pubmed: 32365515google scholar: lookup
            9. Qi H, Xiao S, Shi R, Ward MP, Chen Y, Tu W, Su Q, Wang W, Wang X, Zhang Z. COVID-19 transmission in Mainland China is associated with temperature and humidity: A time-series analysis.. Sci Total Environ 2020 Aug 1;728:138778.
              doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138778pubmed: 32335405google scholar: lookup
            10. Zhang Y, Ye C, Yu J, Zhu W, Wang Y, Li Z, Xu Z, Cheng J, Wang N, Hao L, Hu W. The complex associations of climate variability with seasonal influenza A and B virus transmission in subtropical Shanghai, China.. Sci Total Environ 2020 Jan 20;701:134607.
              doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134607pubmed: 31710904google scholar: lookup
            11. Peci A, Winter AL, Li Y, Gnaneshan S, Liu J, Mubareka S, Gubbay JB. Effects of Absolute Humidity, Relative Humidity, Temperature, and Wind Speed on Influenza Activity in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.. Appl Environ Microbiol 2019 Mar 15;85(6).
              doi: 10.1128/AEM.02426-18pubmed: 30610079google scholar: lookup
            12. Sack A, Daramragchaa U, Chuluunbaatar M, Gonchigoo B, Bazartseren B, Tsogbadrakh N, Gray GC. Low Prevalence of Enzootic Equine Influenza Virus among Horses in Mongolia.. Pathogens 2017 Nov 30;6(4).
              doi: 10.3390/pathogens6040061pubmed: 29189713google scholar: lookup
            13. Van Leuken JPG, Swart AN, Brandsma J, Terink W, Van de Kassteele J, Droogers P, Sauter F, Havelaar AH, Van der Hoek W. Human Q fever incidence is associated to spatiotemporal environmental conditions.. One Health 2016 Dec;2:77-87.
              doi: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2016.03.004pubmed: 28616479google scholar: lookup
            14. Li J, Rao Y, Sun Q, Wu X, Jin J, Bi Y, Chen J, Lei F, Liu Q, Duan Z, Ma J, Gao GF, Liu D, Liu W. Identification of climate factors related to human infection with avian influenza A H7N9 and H5N1 viruses in China.. Sci Rep 2015 Dec 11;5:18094.
              doi: 10.1038/srep18094pubmed: 26656876google scholar: lookup
            15. Smith C, Skelly C, Kung N, Roberts B, Field H. Flying-fox species density--a spatial risk factor for Hendra virus infection in horses in eastern Australia.. PLoS One 2014;9(6):e99965.
              doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099965pubmed: 24936789google scholar: lookup
            16. Corzo CA, Culhane M, Dee S, Morrison RB, Torremorell M. Airborne detection and quantification of swine influenza a virus in air samples collected inside, outside and downwind from swine barns.. PLoS One 2013;8(8):e71444.
              doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0071444pubmed: 23951164google scholar: lookup
            Subscribe to our newsletter
            Join 99,383 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.