FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Animals : an open access journal from MDPI2021; 11(2); doi: 10.3390/ani11020270

The Risk Factors for Musculoskeletal Injuries in Thoroughbred Racehorses in Queensland, Australia: How These Vary for Two-Year-Old and Older Horses and with Type of Injury.

Abstract: Musculoskeletal injuries (MSI) continue to affect Thoroughbred racehorses internationally. There is a strong interest in developing training and management strategies to reduce their impact, however, studies of risk factors report inconsistent findings. Furthermore, many injuries and fatalities occur during training rather than during racing, yet most studies report racing data only. By combining racing and training data a larger exposure to risk factors and a larger number of musculoskeletal injuries are captured and the true effect of risk factors may be more accurately represented. Furthermore, modifications to reduce the impact of MSI are more readily implemented at the training level. Our study aimed to: (1) determine the risk factors for musculoskeletal injuries and whether these are different for two-year-old and older horses and (2) determine whether risk factors vary with type of injury. This was performed by repeating analyses by age category and injury type. Data from 202 cases and 202 matched controls were collected through weekly interviews with trainers and analysed using conditional logistic regression. Increasing dam parity significantly reduced the odds of injury in horses of all age groups because of the effect in two-year-old horses (odds ratio (OR) 0.08; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.02, 0.36; p < 0.001). Increasing total preparation length is associated with higher odds of injury in horses of all ages (OR 5.56; 95% CI 1.59, 19.46; p = 0.01), but particularly in two-year-old horses (OR 8.05; 95% CI 1.92, 33.76; p = 0.004). Increasing number of days exercised at a slow pace decreased the odds of injury in horses of all ages (OR 0.09; 95% CI 0.03, 0.28; p < 0.001). The distance travelled at three-quarter pace and above (faster than 13 m/s; 15 s/furlong; 800 m/min; 48 km/h) and the total distance travelled at a gallop (faster than 15 m/s; 13 s/furlong; 900 m/min; 55 km/h) in the past four weeks significantly affected the odds of injury. There was a non-linear association between high-speed exercise and injury whereby the odds of injury initially increased and subsequently decreased as accumulated high-speed exercise distance increased. None of the racing career and performance indices affected the odds of injury. We identified horses in this population that have particularly high odds of injury. Two-year-old horses from primiparous mares are at increased odds of injury, particularly dorsal metacarpal disease. Two-year-old horses that have had a total preparation length of between 10 and 14 weeks also have increased odds of injury. Horses of all ages that travelled a total distance of 2.4-3.8 km (12-19 furlongs) at a gallop in the last four weeks and horses three years and older that travelled 3.0-4.8 km (15-24 furlongs) at three-quarter pace and above also have increased odds of injury. We recommend that these horses should be monitored closely for impending signs of injury. Increasing the number of days worked at a slow pace may be more effective for preventing injury, if horses are perceived at a higher risk, than resting the horse altogether. Early identification of horses at increased risk and appropriate intervention could substantially reduce the impact of musculoskeletal injuries in Thoroughbred racehorses.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2021-01-21 PubMed ID: 33494508PubMed Central: PMC7910838DOI: 10.3390/ani11020270Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research aimed to identify the potential risk factors for musculoskeletal injuries in Thoroughbred racehorses, studying whether these factors vary with the horse’s age and type of injury.

Research Purpose

  • The researchers aimed to explore the different risk factors contributing to musculoskeletal injuries in racehorses and verify if these factors vary for horses of different ages, especially comparing two-year-old horses to older ones.
  • The study also examined whether these risk factors shift depending on the type of the injury.

Research Methodology

  • The researchers analysed data from 202 cases, and 202 corresponding controls. These were collected via weekly interviews with the horse trainers.
  • The data collected was analyzed using conditional logistic regression method.

Key Findings

  • Increasing the number of births a mare, or female horse, had significantly reduced the risk of injury in her offspring, especially for two-year-old horses.
  • Protracted preparation length was associated with heightened injury risk in all age groups of horses, but particularly in two-year-old animals.
  • The study found that horses of all ages that executed more days of slow-paced exercise had decreased risk of injury.
  • The distance the horses covered at three-quarter pace and galloping (above certain speeds) during the past four weeks significantly influenced their odds of getting injured.
  • The association between high-speed exercises and risk of injury was non-linear. Starting, the chances of injury rose with increasing distances covered at high speed; however, it subsequently decreased as the distance increased further.
  • Racing history and performance indices did not have any significant effect on the injury risk.

Enhanced Risk Sections

  • The research identified certain groups of horses with increased injury odds. Specifically, two-year-old horses from mares giving birth for the first time had a higher risk of injury, particularly dorsal metacarpal disease
  • Two-year-old horses that had gone through a total preparation period of between 10 and 14 weeks also generally had higher odds of injury.
  • Horses of all ages that had run a total distance of 2.4-3.8 km at a gallop in the last four weeks, and horses three years and older covering 3.0-4.8 km at three-quarter pace, were also found to have higher odds of injury.

Recommendations and Conclusions

  • The researchers recommended that these high-risk horses should be regularly monitored for any forthcoming injury signs.
  • They suggested that increasing the number of days of slow-paced work might be more effective in preventing injury, especially if the horses were identified as higher risk, than allowing the horse to rest entirely.
  • With early identification of horses at an elevated risk and implementing appropriate interventions, the impact of musculoskeletal injuries in Thoroughbred racehorses could be considerably reduced.

Cite This Article

APA
Crawford KL, Finnane A, Phillips CJC, Greer RM, Woldeyohannes SM, Perkins NR, Kidd LJ, Ahern BJ. (2021). The Risk Factors for Musculoskeletal Injuries in Thoroughbred Racehorses in Queensland, Australia: How These Vary for Two-Year-Old and Older Horses and with Type of Injury. Animals (Basel), 11(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11020270

Publication

Animals : an open access journal from MDPI
ISSN: 2076-2615
NlmUniqueID: 101635614
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 11
Issue: 2

Researcher Affiliations

Crawford, Kylie L
  • School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia.
  • School of Public Health, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia.
Finnane, Anna
  • School of Public Health, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia.
Phillips, Clive J C
  • Curtin University Sustainability Policy (CUSP) Institute, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6845, Australia.
Greer, Ristan M
  • Torus Research, Bridgeman Downs, QLD 4035, Australia.
  • School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia.
Woldeyohannes, Solomon M
  • School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia.
Perkins, Nigel R
  • School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia.
Kidd, Lisa J
  • School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia.
Ahern, Benjamin J
  • School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

This article includes 87 references
  1. Jeffcott LB, Rossdale PD, Freestone J, Frank CJ, Towers-Clark PF. An assessment of wastage in thoroughbred racing from conception to 4 years of age.. Equine Vet. J. 1982;14:185–198.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1982.tb02389.xpubmed: 7106081google scholar: lookup
  2. Rossdale PD, Hopes R, Digby NJ. Epidemiological study of wastage among racehorses 1982 and 1983.. Vet. Rec. 1985;116:66–69.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.116.3.66pubmed: 3976145google scholar: lookup
  3. Clegg PD. Musculoskeletal disease and injury, now and in the future. Part 1: Fractures and fatalities.. Equine Vet. J. 2011;43:643–649.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2011.00457.xpubmed: 21933264google scholar: lookup
  4. Bailey CJ, Reid SW, Hodgson DR, Suann CJ, Rose RJ. Risk factors associated with musculoskeletal injuries in Australian thoroughbred racehorses.. Prev. Vet. Med. 1997;32:47–55.
    doi: 10.1016/S0167-5877(97)00009-3pubmed: 9361320google scholar: lookup
  5. Cohen ND, Peloso JG, Mundy GD, Fisher M, Holland RE, Little TV, Misheff MM, Watkins JP, Honnas CM, Moyer W. Racing-related factors and results of prerace physical inspection and their association with musculoskeletal injuries incurred in thoroughbreds during races.. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1997;211:454–463.
    pubmed: 9267508
  6. Parkin TD, Rossdale PD. Epidemiology of equine performance wastage: Importance of analysing facts and implementing their message in management.. Equine Vet. J. 2006;38:98–100.
    doi: 10.2746/042516406776563279pubmed: 16536374google scholar: lookup
  7. Estberg L, Stover SM, Gardner IA, Johnson BJ, Case JT, Ardans A, Read DH, Anderson ML, Barr BC, Daft BM. Fatal musculoskeletal injuries incurred during racing and training in thoroughbreds.. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1996;208:92–96.
    pubmed: 8682713
  8. Hitchens PL, Hill AE, Stover SM. The role of catastrophic injury or sudden death of the horse in race-day jockey falls and injuries in California, 2007–2012.. Equine Vet. J. 2016;48:50–56.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12392pubmed: 25417895google scholar: lookup
  9. Diab SS, Poppenga R, Uzal FA. Sudden death in racehorses: Postmortem examination protocol.. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2017;29:442–449.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638716687004pubmed: 28114865google scholar: lookup
  10. Johnson BJ, Stover SM, Daft BM, Kinde H, Read DH, Barr BC, Anderson M, Moore J, Woods L, Stoltz J. Causes of death in racehorses over a 2 year period.. Equine Vet. J. 1994;26:327–330.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1994.tb04395.xpubmed: 8575402google scholar: lookup
  11. Perkins NR, Reid SW, Morris RS. Profiling the New Zealand Thoroughbred racing industry. 2. Conditions interfering with training and racing.. N. Z. Vet. J. 2004;53:69–76.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.2005.36471pubmed: 15731837google scholar: lookup
  12. Boden LA, Anderson GA, Charles JA, Morgan KL, Morton JM, Parkin TD, Slocombe RF, Clarke AF. Risk of fatality and causes of death of Thoroughbred horses associated with racing in Victoria, Australia: 1989–2004.. Equine Vet. J. 2006;38:312–318.
    doi: 10.2746/042516406777749182pubmed: 16866197google scholar: lookup
  13. Rosanowski SM, Chang YM, Stirk AJ, Verheyen KL. Descriptive epidemiology of veterinary events in flat racing Thoroughbreds in Great Britain (2000 to 2013). Equine Vet. J. 2017;49:275–281.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12592pubmed: 27208544google scholar: lookup
  14. DeLay J. Postmortem findings in Ontario racehorses, 2003–2015.. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2017;29:457–464.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638717700690pubmed: 28382856google scholar: lookup
  15. Physick-Sheard PW, Avison A, Chappell E, MacIver M. Ontario Racehorse Death Registry, 2003–2015: Descriptive analysis and rates of mortality.. Equine Vet. J. 2017.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12955pubmed: 29672910google scholar: lookup
  16. Parkin TD, Clegg PD, French NP, Proudman CJ, Riggs CM, Singer ER, Webbon PM, Morgan KL. Race- and course-level risk factors for fatal distal limb fracture in racing Thoroughbreds.. Equine Vet. J. 2004;36:521–526.
    doi: 10.2746/0425164044877332pubmed: 15460077google scholar: lookup
  17. Parkin TD, Clegg PD, French NP, Proudman CJ, Riggs CM, Singer ER, Webbon PM, Morgan KL. Horse-level risk factors for fatal distal limb fracture in racing Thoroughbreds in the UK.. Equine Vet. J. 2004;36:513–519.
    doi: 10.2746/0425164044877387pubmed: 15460076google scholar: lookup
  18. Wood JLN, Harkins L, Rogers K. A retrospective study of factors associated with racehorse fatality on British racecourses from 1990–1999. Proceedings of the 13th International Conference of Racing Analysts and Veterinarians Cambridge, UK. 5 August 2000; pp. 274–277.
  19. Bailey CJ, Reid SW, Hodgson DR, Bourke JM, Rose RJ. Flat, hurdle and steeple racing: Risk factors for musculoskeletal injury.. Equine Vet. J. 1998;30:498–503.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1998.tb04525.xpubmed: 9844968google scholar: lookup
  20. Peloso JG, Mundy GD, Cohen ND. Prevalence of, and factors associated with, musculoskeletal racing injuries of thoroughbreds.. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1994;204:620–626.
    pubmed: 8163419
  21. Verheyen KL, Wood JL. Descriptive epidemiology of fractures occurring in British Thoroughbred racehorses in training.. Equine Vet. J. 2004;36:167–173.
    doi: 10.2746/0425164044868684pubmed: 15038441google scholar: lookup
  22. Ely ER, Avella CS, Price JS, Smith RK, Wood JL, Verheyen KL. Descriptive epidemiology of fracture, tendon and suspensory ligament injuries in National Hunt racehorses in training.. Equine Vet. J. 2009;41:372–378.
    doi: 10.2746/042516409X371224pubmed: 19562899google scholar: lookup
  23. Allen SE, Rosanowski SM, Stirk AJ, Verheyen KL. Description of veterinary events and risk factors for fatality in National Hunt flat racing Thoroughbreds in Great Britain (2000–2013). Equine Vet. J. 2017.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12676pubmed: 28235142google scholar: lookup
  24. Riggs CM. Fractures—A preventable hazard of racing thoroughbreds?. Vet. J. 2002;163:19–29.
    doi: 10.1053/tvjl.2001.0610pubmed: 11749133google scholar: lookup
  25. Whitton RC, Ayodele BA, Hitchens PL, Mackie EJ. Subchondral bone microdamage accumulation in distal metacarpus of Thoroughbred racehorses.. Equine Vet. J. 2018;50:766–773.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12948pubmed: 29660153google scholar: lookup
  26. Stover SM, Johnson BJ, Daft BM, Read DH, Anderson M, Barr BC, Kinde H, Moore J, Stoltz J, Ardans AA. An association between complete and incomplete stress fractures of the humerus in racehorses.. Equine Vet. J. 1992;24:260–263.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1992.tb02831.xpubmed: 1499531google scholar: lookup
  27. Boden LA, Anderson GA, Charles JA, Morgan KL, Morton JM, Parkin TD, Clarke AF, Slocombe RF. Risk factors for Thoroughbred racehorse fatality in flat starts in Victoria, Australia (1989–2004). Equine Vet. J. 2007;39:430–437.
    doi: 10.2746/042516407X183162pubmed: 17910268google scholar: lookup
  28. Anthenill LA, Stover SM, Gardner IA, Hill AE. Risk factors for proximal sesamoid bone fractures associated with exercise history and horseshoe characteristics in Thoroughbred racehorses.. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2007;68:760–771.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.68.7.760pubmed: 17605612google scholar: lookup
  29. Boden LA, Anderson GA, Charles JA, Morgan KL, Morton JM, Parkin TD, Clarke AF, Slocombe RF. Risk factors for Thoroughbred racehorse fatality in jump starts in Victoria, Australia (1989–2004). Equine Vet. J. 2007;39:422–428.
    doi: 10.2746/042516407X183757pubmed: 17910267google scholar: lookup
  30. Estberg L, Gardner IA, Stover SM, Johnson BJ, Case JT, Ardans A. Cumulative racing-speed exercise distance cluster as a risk factor for fatal musculoskeletal injury in Thoroughbred racehorses in California.. Prev. Vet. Med. 1995;24:253–263.
    doi: 10.1016/0167-5877(95)00489-Jgoogle scholar: lookup
  31. Estberg L, Stover SM, Gardner IA, Drake CM, Johnson B, Ardans A. High-speed exercise history and catastrophic racing fracture in thoroughbreds.. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1996;57:1549–1555.
    pubmed: 8915427
  32. Estberg L, Stover SM, Gardner IA, Johnson BJ, Jack RA, Case JT, Ardans A, Read DH, Anderson ML, Barr BC. Relationship between race start characteristics and risk of catastrophic injury in thoroughbreds: 78 cases (1992). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1998;212:544–549.
    pubmed: 9491163
  33. Estberg L, Gardner IA, Stover SM, Johnson BJ. A case-crossover study of intensive racing and training schedules and risk of catastrophic musculoskeletal injury and lay-up in California thoroughbred racehorses.. Prev. Vet. Med. 1998;33:159–170.
    doi: 10.1016/S0167-5877(97)00047-0pubmed: 9500171google scholar: lookup
  34. Morrice-West AV, Hitchens PL, Walmsley EA, Stevenson MA, Whitton RC. Training practices, speed and distances undertaken by Thoroughbred racehorses in Victoria, Australia.. Equine Vet. J. 2019.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.13156pubmed: 31386764google scholar: lookup
  35. Verheyen KL, Henley WE, Price JS, Wood JL. Training-related factors associated with dorsometacarpal disease in young Thoroughbred racehorses in the UK.. Equine Vet. J. 2005;37:442–448.
    doi: 10.2746/042516405774480085pubmed: 16163947google scholar: lookup
  36. Verheyen K, Price J, Lanyon L, Wood J. Exercise distance and speed affect the risk of fracture in racehorses.. Bone. 2006;39:1322–1330.
    doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2006.05.025pubmed: 16926125google scholar: lookup
  37. Boston RC, Nunamaker DM. Gait and speed as exercise components of risk factors associated with onset of fatigue injury of the third metacarpal bone in 2-year-old Thoroughbred racehorses.. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2000;61:602–608.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2000.61.602pubmed: 10850832google scholar: lookup
  38. Vallance SA, Entwistle RC, Hitchens PL, Gardner IA, Stover SM. Case-control study of high-speed exercise history of Thoroughbred and Quarter Horse racehorses that died related to a complete scapular fracture.. Equine Vet. J. 2013;45:284–292.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2012.00644.xpubmed: 23240828google scholar: lookup
  39. Cohen ND, Berry SM, Peloso JG, Mundy GD, Howard IC. Association of high-speed exercise with racing injury in thoroughbreds.. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2000;216:1273–1278.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2000.216.1273pubmed: 10767969google scholar: lookup
  40. Perkins NR, Reid SW, Morris RS. Risk factors for musculoskeletal injuries of the lower limbs in Thoroughbred racehorses in New Zealand.. N. Z. Vet. J. 2005;53:171–183.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.2005.36502pubmed: 16012587google scholar: lookup
  41. Parkin TDH, Clegg PD, French NP, Proudman CJ, Riggs CM, Singer ER, Webbon PM, Morgan KL. Risk factors for fatal lateral condylar fracture of the third metacarpus/metatarsus in UK racing.. Equine Vet. J. 2005;37:192–199.
    doi: 10.2746/0425164054530641pubmed: 15892225google scholar: lookup
  42. Mohammed HO, Hill T, Lowe J. Risk factors associated with injuries in thoroughbred horses.. Equine Vet. J. 1991;23:445–448.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1991.tb03758.xpubmed: 1778162google scholar: lookup
  43. Vallance SA, Case JT, Entwistle RC, Kinde H, Barr BC, Moore J, Anderson ML, Arthur RM, Stover SM. Characteristics of Thoroughbred and Quarter Horse racehorses that sustained a complete scapular fracture.. Equine Vet. J. 2012;44:425–431.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2011.00481.xpubmed: 21950466google scholar: lookup
  44. Perkins NR, Reid SW, Morris RS. Risk factors for injury to the superficial digital flexor tendon and suspensory apparatus in Thoroughbred racehorses in New Zealand.. N. Z. Vet. J. 2005;53:184–192.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.2005.36503pubmed: 16012588google scholar: lookup
  45. Bolwell CF, Rogers CW, French NP, Firth EC. Risk factors for interruptions to training occurring before the first trial start of 2-year-old Thoroughbred racehorses.. N. Z. Vet. J. 2012;60:241–246.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.2012.673163pubmed: 22712776google scholar: lookup
  46. Verheyen KL, Newton JR, Price JS, Wood JL. A case-control study of factors associated with pelvic and tibial stress fractures in Thoroughbred racehorses in training in the UK.. Prev. Vet. Med. 2006;74:21–35.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2006.01.004pubmed: 16473420google scholar: lookup
  47. Cruz AM, Poljak Z, Filejski C, Lowerison ML, Goldie K, Martin SW, Hurtig MB. Epidemiologic characteristics of catastrophic musculoskeletal injuries in Thoroughbred racehorses.. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2007;68:1370–1375.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.68.12.1370pubmed: 18052743google scholar: lookup
  48. Mason TA, Bourke JM. Closure of the distal radial epiphysis and its relationship to unsoundness in two year old Thoroughbreds.. Aust. Vet. J. 1973;49:221–228.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1973.tb05205.xpubmed: 4716444google scholar: lookup
  49. Sun TC, Riggs CM, Cogger N, Wright J, Al-Alawneh JI. Noncatastrophic and catastrophic fractures in racing Thoroughbreds at the Hong Kong Jockey Club.. Equine Vet. J. 2018;51:77–82.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12953pubmed: 29672909google scholar: lookup
  50. Crawford KL, Finnane A, Greer RM, Phillips CJC, Woldeyohannes SM, Perkins NR, Ahern BJ. Appraising the Welfare of Thoroughbred Racehorses in Training in Queensland, Australia: The Incidence and Type of Musculoskeletal Injuries Vary between Two-Year-Old and Older Thoroughbred Racehorses.. Animals. 2020;10:2046.
    doi: 10.3390/ani10112046pmc: PMC7694396pubmed: 33167429google scholar: lookup
  51. Cogger N, Evans DL, Hodgson DR, Reid SW, Perkins N. Incidence rate of musculoskeletal injuries and determinants of time to recovery in young Australian Thoroughbred racehorses.. Aust. Vet. J. 2008;86:473–480.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2008.00359.xpubmed: 19076769google scholar: lookup
  52. . Racing Australia Database.. [(accessed on 1 September 2020)]; Available online: http://www.racingaustralia.horse/home.aspx.
  53. Parkin TDH. Epidemiology of training and racing injuries.. Equine Vet. J. 2007;39:466–469.
    doi: 10.2746/042516407X229233pubmed: 17910274google scholar: lookup
  54. Agresti A. An Introduction to Categorical Data Analysis.. 2nd ed. Wiley-Interscience; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2007.
  55. Kuo CL, Duan Y, Grady J. Unconditional or Conditional Logistic Regression Model for Age-Matched Case-Control Data?. Front. Public Health. 2018;6:57.
    doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2018.00057pmc: PMC5840200pubmed: 29552553google scholar: lookup
  56. Pearce N. Analysis of matched case-control studies.. BMJ (Clin. Res. Ed.) 2016;352:i969.
    doi: 10.1136/bmj.i969pmc: PMC4770817pubmed: 26916049google scholar: lookup
  57. Kirkwood BR, Sterne JAC. Essential Medical Statistics.. 2nd ed. Blackwell Science; Hoboken, NJ, USA: Blackwell Pub.; Malden, MA, USA: 2003.
  58. Juul S, Frydenberg M. An Introduction to Stata for Health Researchers.. 4th ed. Stata Corp LP; College Station, TX, USA: 2014.
  59. Firth EC, Rogers CW. Musculoskeletal responses of 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses to early training. 7. Bone and articular cartilage response in the carpus.. N. Z. Vet. J. 2005;53:113–122.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.2005.36488pubmed: 15846395google scholar: lookup
  60. Firth EC, Rogers CW, Anderson BH. Musculoskeletal responses of 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses to early training. 4. Morphometric, microscopic and biomechanical properties of the digital tendons of the forelimb.. N. Z. Vet. J. 2004;52:285–292.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.2004.36441pubmed: 15768125google scholar: lookup
  61. Firth EC, Rogers CW, Doube M, Jopson NB. Musculoskeletal responses of 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses to early training. 6. Bone parameters in the third metacarpal and third metatarsal bones.. N. Z. Vet. J. 2005;53:101–112.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.2005.36487pubmed: 15846394google scholar: lookup
  62. Wilsher S, Allen WR. The effects of maternal age and parity on placental and fetal development in the mare.. Equine Vet. J. 2003;35:476–483.
    doi: 10.2746/042516403775600550pubmed: 12875326google scholar: lookup
  63. Faulkner RA, Bailey DA, Drinkwater DT, McKay HA, Arnold C, Wilkinson AA. Bone densitometry in Canadian children 8-17 years of Age.. Calcif. Tissue Int. 1996;59:344–351.
    doi: 10.1007/s002239900138pubmed: 8849400google scholar: lookup
  64. Beck TJ, Ruff CB, Shaffer RA, Betsinger K, Trone DW, Brodine SK. Stress fracture in military recruits: Gender differences in muscle and bone susceptibility factors.. Bone. 2000;27:437–444.
    doi: 10.1016/S8756-3282(00)00342-2pubmed: 10962357google scholar: lookup
  65. Cresswell EN, McDonough SP, Palmer SE, Hernandez CJ, Reesink HL. Can quantitative computed tomography detect bone morphological changes associated with catastrophic proximal sesamoid bone fracture in Thoroughbred racehorses?. Equine Vet. J. 2019;51:123–130.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12965pubmed: 29758110google scholar: lookup
  66. Loughridge AB, Hess AM, Parkin TD, Kawcak CE. Qualitative assessment of bone density at the distal articulating surface of the third metacarpal in Thoroughbred racehorses with and without condylar fracture.. Equine Vet. J. 2017;49:172–177.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12544pubmed: 26638772google scholar: lookup
  67. Verheyen KL, Price JS, Wood JL. Fracture rate in Thoroughbred racehorses is affected by dam age and parity.. Vet. J. 2007;174:295–301.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2006.07.023pubmed: 16996756google scholar: lookup
  68. Firth EC, Rogers CW, Perkins NR, Anderson BH, Grace ND. Musculoskeletal responses of 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses to early training. 1. Study design, and clinical, nutritional, radiological and histological observations.. N. Z. Vet. J. 2004;52:261–271.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.2004.36438pubmed: 15768122google scholar: lookup
  69. Bennell KL, Malcolm SA, Wark JD, Brukner PD. Models for the pathogenesis of stress fractures in athletes.. Br. J. Sports Med. 1996;30:200–204.
    doi: 10.1136/bjsm.30.3.200pmc: PMC1332329pubmed: 8889110google scholar: lookup
  70. Carrier TK, Estberg L, Stover SM, Gardner IA, Johnson BJ, Read DH, Ardans AA. Association between long periods without high-speed workouts and risk of complete humeral or pelvic fracture in thoroughbred racehorses: 54 cases (1991–1994). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1998;212:1582–1587.
    pubmed: 9604029
  71. Firth EC. The response of bone, articular cartilage and tendon to exercise in the horse.. J. Anat. 2006;208:513–526.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00547.xpmc: PMC2100207pubmed: 16637875google scholar: lookup
  72. Boyde A. The real response of bone to exercise.. J. Anat. 2003;203:173–189.
    doi: 10.1046/j.1469-7580.2003.00213.xpmc: PMC1571152pubmed: 12924818google scholar: lookup
  73. Boyde A, Firth EC. Musculoskeletal responses of 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses to early training. 8. Quantitative back-scattered electron scanning electron microscopy and confocal fluorescence microscopy of the epiphysis of the third metacarpal bone.. N. Z. Vet. J. 2005;53:123–132.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.2005.36489pubmed: 15846396google scholar: lookup
  74. Da Costa Gomez TM, Barrett JG, Sample SJ, Radtke CL, Kalscheur VL, Lu Y, Markel MD, Santschi EM, Scollay MC, Muir P. Up-regulation of site-specific remodeling without accumulation of microcracking and loss of osteocytes.. Bone. 2005;37:16–24.
    doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2004.12.016pubmed: 15908291google scholar: lookup
  75. Whitton RC, Trope GD, Ghasem-Zadeh A, Anderson GA, Parkin TD, Mackie EJ, Seeman E. Third metacarpal condylar fatigue fractures in equine athletes occur within previously modelled subchondral bone.. Bone. 2010;47:826–831.
    doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2010.07.019pubmed: 20659599google scholar: lookup
  76. Young DR, Nunamaker DM, Markel MD. Quantitative evaluation of the remodeling response of the proximal sesamoid bones to training-related stimuli in Thoroughbreds.. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1991;52:1350–1356.
    pubmed: 1928920
  77. Smith RK, Birch H, Patterson-Kane J, Firth EC, Williams L, Cherdchutham W, van Weeren WR, Goodship AE. Should equine athletes commence training during skeletal development? Changes in tendon matrix associated with development, ageing, function and exercise.. Equine Vet. J. Suppl. 1999:201–209.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05218.xpubmed: 10659252google scholar: lookup
  78. Patterson-Kane JC, Parry DAD, Birch HL, Goodship AE, Firth EC. An age-related study of morphology and cross-link composition of collagen fibrils in the digital flexor tendons of young thoroughbred horses.. Connect. Tissue Res. 1997;36:253–260.
    doi: 10.3109/03008209709160225pubmed: 9512893google scholar: lookup
  79. Patterson-Kane JC, Wilson AM, Firth EC, Parry DA, Goodship AE. Comparison of collagen fibril populations in the superficial digital flexor tendons of exercised and nonexercised thoroughbreds.. Equine Vet. J. 1997;29:121–125.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1997.tb01653.xpubmed: 9104561google scholar: lookup
  80. Patterson-Kane JC, Wilson AM, Firth EC, Parry DA, Goodship AE. Exercise-related alterations in crimp morphology in the central regions of superficial digital flexor tendons from young thoroughbreds: A controlled study.. Equine Vet. J. 1998;30:61–64.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1998.tb04089.xpubmed: 9458400google scholar: lookup
  81. Kasashima Y, Smith RK, Birch HL, Takahashi T, Kusano K, Goodship AE. Exercise-induced tendon hypertrophy: Cross-sectional area changes during growth are influenced by exercise.. Equine Vet. J. Suppl. 2002;34:264–268.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2002.tb05430.xpubmed: 12405698google scholar: lookup
  82. Perkins NR, Rogers CW, Firth EC, Anderson BH. Musculoskeletal responses of 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses to early training. 3. In vivo ultrasonographic assessment of the cross-sectional area and echogenicity of the superficial digital flexor tendon.. N. Z. Vet. J. 2004;52:280–284.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.2004.36440pubmed: 15768124google scholar: lookup
  83. Patterson-Kane JC, Firth EC, Parry DA, Wilson AM, Goodship AE. Effects of training on collagen fibril populations in the suspensory ligament and deep digital flexor tendon of young thoroughbreds.. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1998;59:64–68.
    pubmed: 9442247
  84. Velie BD, Knight PK, Thomson PC, Wade CM, Hamilton NA. The association of age at first start with career length in the Australian Thoroughbred racehorse population.. Equine Vet. J. 2013;45:410–413.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2012.00651.xpubmed: 23009388google scholar: lookup
  85. Reed SR, Jackson BF, Mc Ilwraith CW, Wright IM, Pilsworth R, Knapp S, Wood JL, Price JS, Verheyen KL. Descriptive epidemiology of joint injuries in Thoroughbred racehorses in training.. Equine Vet. J. 2012;44:13–19.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00352.xpubmed: 21496103google scholar: lookup
  86. Perkins NR, Reid SW, Morris RS. Profiling the New Zealand Thoroughbred racing industry. 1. Training, racing and general health patterns.. N. Z. Vet. J. 2004;53:59–68.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.2005.36470pubmed: 15731836google scholar: lookup
  87. Thrusfield MV, Christley R. Veterinary Epidemiology.. 4th ed. Wiley; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2018.

Citations

This article has been cited 9 times.
  1. Schmitt PR, Sanderson W, Rogers JT 3rd, Barzee TJ, Peterson MM. A Comparison of Devices for Race Day Characterization of North American Turfgrass Thoroughbred Racing Surfaces. Animals (Basel) 2023 Dec 21;14(1).
    doi: 10.3390/ani14010038pubmed: 38200768google scholar: lookup
  2. Wong ASM, Morrice-West AV, Hitchens PL, Whitton RC. The association between Thoroughbred racehorse training practices and musculoskeletal injuries in Victoria, Australia. Front Vet Sci 2023;10:1260554.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1260554pubmed: 37941814google scholar: lookup
  3. Giusti Gestri L. Wearable technology may assist in reducing jockeys' injuries if integrated into their safety vests: a qualitative study. Front Sports Act Living 2023;5:1167110.
    doi: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1167110pubmed: 37416317google scholar: lookup
  4. Siegers E, van Wijk E, van den Broek J, Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan M, Munsters C. Longitudinal Training and Workload Assessment in Young Friesian Stallions in Relation to Fitness: Part 1. Animals (Basel) 2023 Feb 16;13(4).
    doi: 10.3390/ani13040689pubmed: 36830476google scholar: lookup
  5. Siegers E, van den Broek J, Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan M, Munsters C. Longitudinal Training and Workload Assessment in Young Friesian Stallions in Relation to Fitness, Part 2-An Adapted Training Program. Animals (Basel) 2023 Feb 14;13(4).
    doi: 10.3390/ani13040658pubmed: 36830445google scholar: lookup
  6. Rampin A, Skoufos I, Raghunath M, Tzora A, Diakakis N, Prassinos N, Zeugolis DI. Allogeneic Serum and Macromolecular Crowding Maintain Native Equine Tenocyte Function in Culture. Cells 2022 May 5;11(9).
    doi: 10.3390/cells11091562pubmed: 35563866google scholar: lookup
  7. Johnston GCA, Ahern BJ, Palmieri C, Young AC. Imaging and Gross Pathological Appearance of Changes in the Parasagittal Grooves of Thoroughbred Racehorses. Animals (Basel) 2021 Nov 24;11(12).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11123366pubmed: 34944142google scholar: lookup
  8. Physick-Sheard P, Avison A, Sears W. Factors Associated with Fatality in Ontario Thoroughbred Racehorses: 2003-2015. Animals (Basel) 2021 Oct 13;11(10).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11102950pubmed: 34679971google scholar: lookup
  9. Physick-Sheard P, Avison A, Sears W. Factors Associated with Mortality in Ontario Standardbred Racing: 2003-2015. Animals (Basel) 2021 Apr 5;11(4).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11041028pubmed: 33916415google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,658 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.