FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Frontiers in veterinary science2022; 9; 798216; doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.798216

The Role of Computed Tomography in Imaging Non-neurologic Disorders of the Head in Equine Patients.

Abstract: Computed tomography (CT) imaging of the head in equine patients is now commonly performed as CT scanners are more readily available. Head CT has proven valuable in evaluating spatially complex anatomic structures, where radiographic superimposition, or restricted access endoscopy or ultrasound, limit complete evaluation of the disease process. Head CT has been demonstrated to be incredibly valuable in the evaluation of dental and paranasal sinus disease, disease of the hyoid apparatus and ear, and in evaluation of skull trauma. CT is an excellent modality for assessment of both osseous and soft tissue structures; however, evaluation of complex vascular anatomy and determination of tissue viability is limited without the use of contrast agents. Therefore, various contrast agent protocols including intravenous and intraarterial iodinated contrast administration techniques have been established. CT also has limitations in the evaluation of brain and spinal cord disease, for which magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has major advantages. Head CT images are most commonly evaluated in transverse planes. However, standard multiplanar reconstructions of the head including dorsal and parasagittal planes improve the understanding of spatially complex disease processes. These reconstructions can be crucial for accurate identification of diseased teeth and determination of the extent and severity of osseous and paranasal sinus disease. Head CT examinations are becoming an increasingly important diagnostic tool in the evaluation of horses with head disorders, and CT imaging findings are an important aspect in the clinical decision-making process. The following review discusses the indications, benefits, and technical considerations for the use of computed tomography (CT) in evaluating non-neurologic head pathologies in equine patients.
Copyright © 2022 Stieger-Vanegas and Hanna.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2022-03-07 PubMed ID: 35321060PubMed Central: PMC8936190DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.798216Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research article discusses the use of Computed Tomography (CT) imaging for assessing non-neurological disorders in the heads of horses. It emphasizes CT’s efficiency in evaluating complex structures, especially in cases where other methods fall short, while also highlighting its limitations and the use of specific contrast agents for better imaging.

Research Context and Scope

  • The article is centered on the application of CT imaging in diagnosing head disorders of equine patients. It delves into how this imaging technology has become commonplace due to increased availability of CT scanners.
  • It places a significant emphasis on how CT has been a game-changer in evaluating complex anatomic structures in horses’ heads, especially in situations where other diagnostic approaches such as radiography, endoscopy, or ultrasound may not provide a complete assessment due to overlapping images or limited access.
  • While focusing predominantly on dental and paranasal sinus disease, disorders of the hyoid apparatus and ear, as well as skull trauma, the study underlines CT’s value in providing comprehensive insight into both bone and soft tissue structures.

CT Imaging and Contrast Agents

  • The article acknowledges that CT has limitations in identifying complex vascular anatomy and assessing tissue viability. To overcome this, contrast agents are used.
  • In this context, the paper explains how iodinated contrast administration techniques, both intravenous and intraarterial, have been established to enhance the visualization of certain structures.

MRI Vs CT

  • Despite its advantages, the paper describes the limitations of CT in evaluating diseases related to the brain and spinal cord, acknowledging that Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) holds a significant advantage in these areas due to its superior ability to image soft tissues and differentiate between normal and diseased tissues.

Evaluations and Conclusion

  • Typically, CT images of a horse’s head are examined in a cross-sectional or transverse manner. However, the article notes that other means of observation – dorsal and parasagittal plane reconstructions – offer an improved understanding of complex disease processes. This can be fundamental in identifying diseased teeth and determining the extent and severity of bone and paranasal sinus diseases.
  • The paper concludes by asserting the importance of CT examinations in making clinical decisions on horses with head disorders, demonstrating its importance in veterinary medicine.

Cite This Article

APA
Stieger-Vanegas SM, Hanna AL. (2022). The Role of Computed Tomography in Imaging Non-neurologic Disorders of the Head in Equine Patients. Front Vet Sci, 9, 798216. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.798216

Publication

Frontiers in veterinary science
ISSN: 2297-1769
NlmUniqueID: 101666658
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 9
Pages: 798216
PII: 798216

Researcher Affiliations

Stieger-Vanegas, Susanne M
  • Department of Clinical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States.
Hanna, Ashley L
  • College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

This article includes 99 references
  1. Tremaine WH, Dixon PM. A long-term study of 277 cases of equine sinonasal disease. Part 2: treatments and results of treatments.. Equine Vet J 2001 May;33(3):283-9.
    doi: 10.2746/042516401776249787pubmed: 11352351google scholar: lookup
  2. Crijns CP, Weller R, Vlaminck L, Verschooten F, Schauvliege S, Powell SE. Comparison between radiography and computed tomography for diagnosis of equine skull fractures. Equine Vet Educ (2019) 31:543–50.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12863google scholar: lookup
  3. Manso-Díaz G, Dyson SJ, Dennis R, García-López JM, Biggi M, García-Real MI, San Román F, Taeymans O. Magnetic resonance imaging characteristics of equine head disorders: 84 cases (2000-2013).. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2015 Mar-Apr;56(2):176-87.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12210pubmed: 25139131google scholar: lookup
  4. Pease A, Mair T, Spriet M. Imaging the equine head and spine.. Equine Vet J 2017 Jan;49(1):13-14.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12640pubmed: 27928832google scholar: lookup
  5. Dakin SG, Lam R, Rees E, Mumby C, West C, Weller R. Technical set-up and radiation exposure for standing computed tomography of the equine head. Equine Vet Educ (2014) 26:208–15.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12127google scholar: lookup
  6. Ranallo FN, Szczykutowicz T. The correct selection of pitch for optimal CT scanning: avoiding common misconceptions.. J Am Coll Radiol 2015 Apr;12(4):423-4.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jacr.2014.12.017pubmed: 25842023google scholar: lookup
  7. Laurenza C, Ansart L, Portier K. Risk Factors of Anesthesia-Related Mortality and Morbidity in One Equine Hospital: A Retrospective Study on 1,161 Cases Undergoing Elective or Emergency Surgeries.. Front Vet Sci 2019;6:514.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00514pmc: PMC6990105pubmed: 32039253google scholar: lookup
  8. Johnston GM, Eastment JK, Wood J, Taylor PM. The confidential enquiry into perioperative equine fatalities (CEPEF): mortality results of Phases 1 and 2.. Vet Anaesth Analg 2002 Oct;29(4):159-170.
    doi: 10.1046/j.1467-2995.2002.00106.xpubmed: 28404360google scholar: lookup
  9. Stewart HL, Siewerdsen JH, Nelson BB, Kawcak CE. Use of cone-beam computed tomography for advanced imaging of the equine patient.. Equine Vet J 2021 Sep;53(5):872-885.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.13473pubmed: 34053096google scholar: lookup
  10. Porter EG, Werpy NM. New concepts in standing advanced diagnostic equine imaging.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2014 Apr;30(1):239-68.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2013.11.001pubmed: 24680215google scholar: lookup
  11. van Zadelhoff C, Liuti T, Dixon PM, Reardon RJM. Multidetector CT and cone-beam CT have substantial agreement in detecting dental and sinus abnormalities in equine cadaver heads.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2021 Jul;62(4):413-420.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12978pubmed: 33987964google scholar: lookup
  12. Davies T, Skelly C, Puggioni A, D'Helft C, Connolly S, Hoey S. Standing CT of the equine head: Reducing radiation dose maintains image quality.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2020 Mar;61(2):137-146.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12823pubmed: 31823453google scholar: lookup
  13. Auckburally A, Flaherty D. Recovery from anaesthesia in horses. 1 What can go wrong?. Practice (2009) 31:340–7.
    doi: 10.1136/inpract.31.7.340google scholar: lookup
  14. Windley Z, Weller R, Tremaine WH, Perkins JD. Two- and three-dimensional computed tomographic anatomy of the enamel, infundibulae and pulp of 126 equine cheek teeth. Part 2: Findings in teeth with macroscopic occlusal or computed tomographic lesions.. Equine Vet J 2009 May;41(5):441-7.
    doi: 10.2746/042516409X391033pubmed: 19642403google scholar: lookup
  15. Brinkschulte M, Bienert-Zeit A, Lüpke M, Hellige M, Staszyk C, Ohnesorge B. Using semi-automated segmentation of computed tomography datasets for three-dimensional visualization and volume measurements of equine paranasal sinuses.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2013 Nov-Dec;54(6):582-90.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12080pubmed: 23890087google scholar: lookup
  16. Tanner J, Spriet M, Espinosa-Mur P, Estell KE, Aleman M. The prevalence of temporal bone fractures is high in horses with severe temporohyoid osteoarthropathy.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2019 Mar;60(2):159-166.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12702pubmed: 30461109google scholar: lookup
  17. Ostrowska J, Lindström L, Tóth T, Hansson K, Uhlhorn M, Ley CJ. Computed tomography characteristics of equine paranasal sinus cysts.. Equine Vet J 2020 Jul;52(4):538-546.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.13212pubmed: 31793020google scholar: lookup
  18. Kinns J, Pease A. Computed tomography in the evaluation of the equine head. Equine Vet Educ (2009) 21:291–4.
    doi: 10.2746/095777309X423022google scholar: lookup
  19. Cissell DD, Wisner ER, Textor J, Mohr FC, Scrivani PV, Théon AP. Computed tomographic appearance of equine sinonasal neoplasia.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2012 May-Jun;53(3):245-51.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2011.01913.xpubmed: 22211373google scholar: lookup
  20. Carmalt JL, Montgomery J. INTRAARTERIAL INJECTION OF IODINATED CONTRAST MEDIUM FOR CONTRAST ENHANCED COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY OF THE EQUINE HEAD.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2015 Jul-Aug;56(4):384-90.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12252pubmed: 25782997google scholar: lookup
  21. Crijns CP, Baeumlin Y, De Rycke L, Broeckx BJ, Vlaminck L, Bergman EH, van Bree H, Gielen I. Intra-arterial versus intra venous contrast-enhanced computed tomography of the equine head.. BMC Vet Res 2016 Jan 7;12:6.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-016-0632-9pmc: PMC4704255pubmed: 26739315google scholar: lookup
  22. Pollard RE, Puchalski SM, Pascoe PJ. Hemodynamic and serum biochemical alterations associated with intravenous administration of three types of contrast media in anesthetized dogs.. Am J Vet Res 2008 Oct;69(10):1268-73.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.69.10.1268pubmed: 18828681google scholar: lookup
  23. Scarabelli S, Cripps P, Rioja E, Alderson B. Adverse reactions following administration of contrast media for diagnostic imaging in anaesthetized dogs and cats: a retrospective study.. Vet Anaesth Analg 2016 Sep;43(5):502-10.
    doi: 10.1111/vaa.12335pubmed: 26782994google scholar: lookup
  24. Gunkel CI, Valverde A, Robertson SA, Thompson MS, Keoughan CG, Ferrell EA. Treatment for a severe reaction to intravenous administration of diatrizoate in an anesthetized horse.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004 Apr 1;224(7):1143-6, 1112.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2004.224.1143pubmed: 15074862google scholar: lookup
  25. Pollard RE, Puchalski SM. Reaction to intraarterial ionic iodinated contrast medium administration in anesthetized horses.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2011 Jul-Aug;52(4):441-3.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2011.01812.xpubmed: 21447035google scholar: lookup
  26. Barrett JF, Keat N. Artifacts in CT: recognition and avoidance.. Radiographics 2004 Nov-Dec;24(6):1679-91.
    doi: 10.1148/rg.246045065pubmed: 15537976google scholar: lookup
  27. Porat-Mosenco Y, Schwarz T, Kass PH. Thick-section reformatting of thinly collimated computed tomography for reduction of skull-base-related artifacts in dogs and horses.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2004 Mar-Apr;45(2):131-5.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2004.04021.xpubmed: 15072144google scholar: lookup
  28. Dixon PM, Tremaine WH, Pickles K, Kuhns L, Hawe C, McCann J, McGorum BC, Railton DI, Brammer S. Equine dental disease. Part 3: A long-term study of 400 cases: disorders of wear, traumatic damage and idiopathic fractures, tumours and miscellaneous disorders of the cheek teeth.. Equine Vet J 2000 Jan;32(1):9-18.
    doi: 10.2746/042516400777612099pubmed: 10661379google scholar: lookup
  29. Dixon PM, Dacre I. A review of equine dental disorders.. Vet J 2005 Mar;169(2):165-87.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2004.03.022pubmed: 15727909google scholar: lookup
  30. Salem SE, Townsend NB, Refaai W, Gomaa M, Archer DC. Prevalence of oro-dental pathology in a working horse population in Egypt and its relation to equine health.. Equine Vet J 2017 Jan;49(1):26-33.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12533pubmed: 26526823google scholar: lookup
  31. COOK WR. BRITISH EQUINE VETERINARY ASSOCIATION SURVEY OF EQUINE DISEASE, 1962-63.. Vet Rec 1965 May 8;77:528.
    pubmed: 14331431
  32. Traub-Dargatz JL, Salman MD, Voss JL. Medical problems of adult horses, as ranked by equine practitioners.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1991 May 15;198(10):1745-7.
    pubmed: 2071472
  33. Selberg K, Easley JT. Advanced imaging in equine dental disease.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2013 Aug;29(2):397-409, vi.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2013.04.009pubmed: 23915666google scholar: lookup
  34. Manso-Díaz G, García-López JM, Maranda L, Taeymans O. The role of head computed tomography in equine practice. Equine Vet Educ (2015) 27:136–45.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12275google scholar: lookup
  35. Butler JA, Colles CM, Dyson SJ, Kold SE, Poulos PW. The head. In: Butler A, Colles CM, Dyson SJ, Kold SE, Poulos PW. Clinical Radiology of the Horse. 4th ed. Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell; (2017). p. 449–530.
  36. Barakzai SF. Dental imaging. In: editors Easley J, Dizon PM, Schumacher J. Equine Dentistry. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier; (2010). p. 199–230.
  37. Liuti T, Reardon R, Dixon PM. Computed tomographic assessment of equine maxillary cheek teeth anatomical relationships, and paranasal sinus volumes.. Vet Rec 2017 Oct 28;181(17):452.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.104185pubmed: 28893971google scholar: lookup
  38. Dixon PM, Tremaine WH, Pickles K, Kuhns L, Hawe C, McCann J, McGorum BC, Railton DI, Brammer S. Equine dental disease part 4: a long-term study of 400 cases: apical infections of cheek teeth.. Equine Vet J 2000 May;32(3):182-94.
    doi: 10.2746/042516400776563581pubmed: 10836472google scholar: lookup
  39. Liuti T, Smith S, Dixon PM. Radiographic, computed tomographic, gross pathological and histological findings with suspected apical infection in 32 equine maxillary cheek teeth (2012-2015).. Equine Vet J 2018 Jan;50(1):41-47.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12729pubmed: 28772346google scholar: lookup
  40. Bühler M, Fürst A, Lewis FI, Kummer M, Ohlerth S. Computed tomographic features of apical infection of equine maxillary cheek teeth: a retrospective study of 49 horses.. Equine Vet J 2014 Jul;46(4):468-73.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12174pubmed: 23991903google scholar: lookup
  41. Dubois BB, Dixon JJ, Witte TH. Assessment of clinical and computed tomographic findings for association with the outcome of intraoral cheek tooth extraction in horses and ponies.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2019 Dec 15;255(12):1369-1376.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.255.12.1369pubmed: 31793834google scholar: lookup
  42. Dixon PM, Tremaine WH, Pickles K, Kuhns L, Hawe C, McCann J, McGorum BC, Railton DI, Brammer S. Equine dental disease part 2: a long-term study of 400 cases: disorders of development and eruption and variations in position of the cheek teeth.. Equine Vet J 1999 Nov;31(6):519-28.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb03862.xpubmed: 10596936google scholar: lookup
  43. Liuti T, Smith S, Dixon PM. A Comparison of Computed Tomographic, Radiographic, Gross and Histological, Dental, and Alveolar Findings in 30 Abnormal Cheek Teeth from Equine Cadavers.. Front Vet Sci 2017;4:236.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2017.00236pmc: PMC5760576pubmed: 29354640google scholar: lookup
  44. Dacre I, Kempsot S, Dixon PM. Equine idiopathic cheek teeth fractures. Part 1: Pathological studies on 35 fractured cheek teeth.. Equine Vet J 2007 Jul;39(4):310-8.
    doi: 10.2746/042516407X182721pubmed: 17722721google scholar: lookup
  45. Dixon PM, Barakzai SZ, Collins NM, Yates J. Equine idiopathic cheek teeth fractures: part 3: a hospital-based survey of 68 referred horses (1999-2005).. Equine Vet J 2007 Jul;39(4):327-32.
    doi: 10.2746/042516407X182983pubmed: 17722724google scholar: lookup
  46. Dixon PM, Kennedy R, Reardon RJM. Equine "Idiopathic" and Infundibular Caries-Related Cheek Teeth Fractures: A Long-Term Study of 486 Fractured Teeth in 300 Horses.. Front Vet Sci 2021;8:646870.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.646870pmc: PMC8192706pubmed: 34124217google scholar: lookup
  47. Rowley KJ, Townsend NB, Chang YR, Fiske-Jackson AR. A computed tomographic study of endodontic and apical changes in 81 equine cheek teeth with sagittal fractures.. Equine Vet J 2022 May;54(3):541-548.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.13475pubmed: 34060137google scholar: lookup
  48. van den Enden MS, Dixon PM. Prevalence of occlusal pulpar exposure in 110 equine cheek teeth with apical infections and idiopathic fractures.. Vet J 2008 Dec;178(3):364-71.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2008.09.026pubmed: 19010702google scholar: lookup
  49. Casey M. A new understanding of oral and dental pathology of the equine cheek teeth.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2013 Aug;29(2):301-24, v.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2013.04.010pubmed: 23915662google scholar: lookup
  50. Smedley RC, Earley ET, Galloway SS, Baratt RM, Rawlinson JE. Equine Odontoclastic Tooth Resorption and Hypercementosis: Histopathologic Features.. Vet Pathol 2015 Sep;52(5):903-9.
    doi: 10.1177/0300985815588608pubmed: 26077784google scholar: lookup
  51. Rahmani V, Häyrinen L, Kareinen I, Ruohoniemi M. History, clinical findings and outcome of horses with radiographical signs of equine odontoclastic tooth resorption and hypercementosis.. Vet Rec 2019 Dec 14;185(23):730.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.105253pmc: PMC7008772pubmed: 31601733google scholar: lookup
  52. Casey MB, Pearson GR, Perkins JD, Tremaine WH. Gross, computed tomographic and histological findings in mandibular cheek teeth extracted from horses with clinical signs of pulpitis due to apical infection.. Equine Vet J 2015 Sep;47(5):557-67.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12315pubmed: 24975383google scholar: lookup
  53. Suske A, Pöschke A, Müller P, Wöber S, Staszyk C. Infundibula of equine maxillary cheek teeth: Part 2: Morphological variations and pathological changes.. Vet J 2016 Mar;209:66-73.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2015.11.023pubmed: 26831172google scholar: lookup
  54. Weller R, Livesey L, Maierl J, Nuss K, Bowen IM, Cauvin ER, Weaver M, Schumacher J, May SA. Comparison of radiography and scintigraphy in the diagnosis of dental disorders in the horse.. Equine Vet J 2001 Jan;33(1):49-58.
    doi: 10.2746/042516401776767458pubmed: 11191610google scholar: lookup
  55. Morgan RE, Fiske-Jackson AR, Hellige M, Gerhauser I, Wohlsein P, Biggi M. Equine odontogenic tumors: Clinical presentation, CT findings, and outcome in 11 horses.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2019 Sep;60(5):502-512.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12793pubmed: 31359553google scholar: lookup
  56. Hance SR, Bertone AL. Neoplasia.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 1993 Apr;9(1):213-34.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30425-Xpubmed: 8472202google scholar: lookup
  57. Luedke L, Rawlinson JE, Sánchez MD, Bass L, Engiles J. True cementomas (cementoblastomas) associated with a nonvital left maxillary second premolar in an 11-year-old miniature horse. Equine Vet Educ (2017) 29:647–54.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12539google scholar: lookup
  58. Veraa S, Dijkman R, Klein WR, van den Belt AJM. Computed tomography in the diagnosis of malignant sinonasal tumours in three horses. Equine Vet Educ (2009) 21:284–8.
    doi: 10.2746/095777309X423031google scholar: lookup
  59. Giavitto AE, Meehan LJ. Congenital hypodontia in three horses diagnosed by computed tomography. Equine Vet Educ (2021) 33:e219–23.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.13270google scholar: lookup
  60. Barakzai SZ, Dixon PM. Dentigerous cysts. Equine Vet Educ (2012) 24:579–81.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2012.00400.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  61. Easley JT, Freeman DE. New ways to diagnose and treat equine dental-related sinus disease.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2013 Aug;29(2):467-85, vii.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2013.04.003pubmed: 23915669google scholar: lookup
  62. Tucker R, Windley ZE, Abernethy AD, Witte TH, Fiske-Jackson AR, Turner S, Smith LJ, Perkins JD. Radiographic, computed tomographic and surgical anatomy of the equine sphenopalatine sinus in normal and diseased horses.. Equine Vet J 2016 Sep;48(5):578-84.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12492pubmed: 26235828google scholar: lookup
  63. Head KW, Dixon PM. Equine nasal and paranasal sinus tumours. Part 1: review of the literature and tumour classification.. Vet J 1999 May;157(3):261-78.
    doi: 10.1053/tvjl.1998.0370pubmed: 10328838google scholar: lookup
  64. Dixon PM, Barnett TP, Morgan RE, Reardon RJM. Computed Tomographic Assessment of Individual Paranasal Sinus Compartment and Nasal Conchal Bulla Involvement in 300 Cases of Equine Sinonasal Disease.. Front Vet Sci 2020;7:580356.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.580356pmc: PMC7652901pubmed: 33195594google scholar: lookup
  65. Henninger W, Frame EM, Willmann M, Simhofer H, Malleczek D, Kneissl SM, Mayrhofer E. CT features of alveolitis and sinusitis in horses.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2003 May-Jun;44(3):269-76.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2003.tb00454.xpubmed: 12816367google scholar: lookup
  66. Dixon PM, Puidupin C, Borkent D, Liuti T, Reardon RJM. A Computed Tomographic Assessment of Osteitis of Sinus Bony Structures in Horses With Sinonasal Disorders.. Front Vet Sci 2020;7:627.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00627pmc: PMC7518044pubmed: 33062655google scholar: lookup
  67. Dixon PM, Froydenlund T, Luiti T, Kane-Smyth J, Horbal A, Reardon RJ. Empyema of the nasal conchal bulla as a cause of chronic unilateral nasal discharge in the horse: 10 cases (2013-2014).. Equine Vet J 2015 Jul;47(4):445-9.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12322pubmed: 25041424google scholar: lookup
  68. Edwards RA, Hermans H, Veraa S. Morphological variations of the infraorbital canal during CT has limited association with headshaking in horses.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2019 Sep;60(5):485-492.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12773pubmed: 31161704google scholar: lookup
  69. Fenner MF, Verwilghen D, Townsend N, Simhofer H, Schwarzer J, Zani DD, Bienert-Zeit A. Paranasal sinus cysts in the horse: Complications related to their presence and surgical treatment in 37 cases.. Equine Vet J 2019 Jan;51(1):57-63.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12959pubmed: 29679404google scholar: lookup
  70. Gasser AM, Love NE, Tate LP Jr. Radiographic diagnosis--ethmoid hematoma.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2000 May-Jun;41(3):247-9.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2000.tb01487.xpubmed: 10850876google scholar: lookup
  71. Textor JA, Puchalski SM, Affolter VK, MacDonald MH, Galuppo LD, Wisner ER. Results of computed tomography in horses with ethmoid hematoma: 16 cases (1993-2005).. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2012 Jun 1;240(11):1338-44.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.240.11.1338pubmed: 22607602google scholar: lookup
  72. Dixon PM, Head KW. Equine nasal and paranasal sinus tumours: part 2: a contribution of 28 case reports.. Vet J 1999 May;157(3):279-94.
    doi: 10.1053/tvjl.1999.0371pubmed: 10328839google scholar: lookup
  73. Dixon PM. Equine sinonasal tumours: does reporting of single cases and case series still advance the neglected field of equine clinical oncology?. Equine Vet Educ (2015) 27:592–4.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12473google scholar: lookup
  74. Lim CK, Saulez MN, Viljoen A, Carstens A. Basilar skull fracture in a Thoroughbred colt: radiography or computed tomography?. J S Afr Vet Assoc 2013 Apr 19;84(1):E1-5.
    doi: 10.4102/jsava.v84i1.251pubmed: 23718726google scholar: lookup
  75. Beccati F, Angeli G, Secco I, Contini A, Gialletti R, Pepe M. Comminuted basilar skull fracture in a colt: use of computed tomography to aid the diagnosis. Equine Vet Educ (2011) 23:327–32.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2010.00158.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  76. Lacombe VA, Sogaro-Robinson C, Reed SM. Diagnostic utility of computed tomography imaging in equine intracranial conditions.. Equine Vet J 2010 Jul;42(5):393-9.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00086.xpubmed: 20636774google scholar: lookup
  77. Carslake HB. Suture exostosis causing obstruction in the nasolacrimal duct in three horses.. N Z Vet J 2009 Aug;57(4):229-34.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.2009.36907pubmed: 19649018google scholar: lookup
  78. Manso-Díaz G, Taeymans O. Imaging diagnosis--nasofrontal suture exostosis in a horse.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2012 Sep-Oct;53(5):573-5.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2011.01923.xpubmed: 22360653google scholar: lookup
  79. Bonilla AG, Wilson K, Santschi EM. Suture exostosis with concurrent nasal septum chondrosarcoma in a horse. Equine Vet Educ (2015) 27:579–84.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12308google scholar: lookup
  80. Klein L, Fürst A, Chicca F, Theiss F, Jackson M. Clinical, radiographic and histologic findings, therapy and outcome in 15 horses with suture periostitis: a case series. Pferdeheilkunde Equine Med (2019) 35:204–10.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20190301google scholar: lookup
  81. Dixon PM. A review of swellings of the frontal region of the equine head. Equine Vet Educ (2014) 26:365–71.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12187google scholar: lookup
  82. Van Thielen B, Busoni V, Chiers K, de Mey J, De Munter M, Grulke S. MRI and CT features of an equine juvenile mandibular ossifying fibroma. J Equine Vet Sci (2013) 33:658–62.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2012.11.008google scholar: lookup
  83. Carmalt JL, Kneissl S, Rawlinson JE, Zwick T, Zekas L, Ohlerth S, Bienert-Zeit A. COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE OF THE TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT IN 1018 ASYMPTOMATIC HORSES: A MULTI-INSTITUTION STUDY.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2016 May;57(3):237-45.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12334pubmed: 26773281google scholar: lookup
  84. Carmalt JL, Simhofer H, Bienert-Zeit A, Rawlinson JE, Waldner CL. The association between oral examination findings and computed tomographic appearance of the equine temporomandibular joint.. Equine Vet J 2017 Nov;49(6):780-783.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12693pubmed: 28437035google scholar: lookup
  85. Nagy AD, Simhofer H. Mandibular condylectomy and meniscectomy for the treatment of septic temporomandibular joint arthritis in a horse.. Vet Surg 2006 Oct;35(7):663-8.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1532-950X.2006.00205.xpubmed: 17026552google scholar: lookup
  86. Barnett TP, Powell SE, Head MJ, Marr CM, Steven WN, Payne RJ. Partial mandibular condylectomy and temporal bone resection for chronic, destructive, septic arthritis of the temporomandibular joint in a horse. Equine Vet Educ (2014) 26:59–63.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12053google scholar: lookup
  87. Smyth T, Allen AL, Carmalt JL. Clinically significant, nontraumatic, degenerative joint disease of the temporomandibular joints in a horse. Equine Vet Educ (2017) 29:72–7.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12382google scholar: lookup
  88. Dixon J, Biggi M, O'Brien EJ, Farr R, Witte TH. IMAGING DIAGNOSIS-IDIOPATHIC HYOID MALFORMATION IN AN 8-YEAR-OLD WELSH SECTION D HORSE.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2017 Jan;58(1):E1-E5.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12367pubmed: 27144484google scholar: lookup
  89. Naylor RJ, Perkins JD, Allen S, Aldred J, Draper E, Patterson-Kane J, Piercy RJ. Histopathology and computed tomography of age-associated degeneration of the equine temporohyoid joint.. Equine Vet J 2010 Jul;42(5):425-30.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00036.xpubmed: 20636779google scholar: lookup
  90. Blanke A, Ohlerth S, Hollerrieder J, Schusser GF. Computed tomographic features of the osseous external ear canal, tympanic membrane, and tympanic bulla in clinically normal horses. J Equine Vet Sci (2016) 45:17–21.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2016.03.001google scholar: lookup
  91. Hanna A, Stieger-Vanegas SM, Heidel JR, Esser M, Schlipf J, Mecham J. Nasal adenocarcinoma in a horse with metastasis to lung, liver, and bone and review of metastasis in nine horses with sinonasal tumors. Case Rep Vet Med (2015) 2015:6.
    doi: 10.1155/2015/845870google scholar: lookup
  92. Davis JL, Gilger BC, Spaulding K, Robertson ID, Jones SL. Nasal adenocarcinoma with diffuse metastases involving the orbit, cerebrum, and multiple cranial nerves in a horse.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2002 Nov 15;221(10):1460-3, 1420.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2002.221.1460pubmed: 12458617google scholar: lookup
  93. Pascoe RR, Summers PM. Clinical survey of tumours and tumour-like lesions in horses in south east Queensland.. Equine Vet J 1981 Oct;13(4):235-9.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1981.tb03504.xpubmed: 6459231google scholar: lookup
  94. Dixon J, Smith K, Perkins J, Sherlock C, Mair T, Weller R. COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE OF MELANOMAS IN THE EQUINE HEAD: 13 CASES.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2016 May;57(3):246-52.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12345pubmed: 26799704google scholar: lookup
  95. Fishman EK, Kuhlman JE, Schuchter LM, Miller JA 3rd, Magid D. CT of malignant melanoma in the chest, abdomen, and musculoskeletal system.. Radiographics 1990 Jul;10(4):603-20.
    doi: 10.1148/radiographics.10.4.2198632pubmed: 2198632google scholar: lookup
  96. Basher AW, Severin GA, Chavkin MJ, Frank AA. Orbital neuroendocrine tumors in three horses.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1997 Mar 1;210(5):668-71.
    pubmed: 9054998
  97. Matiasek K, Cronau M, Schmahl W, Gerhards H. Imaging features and decision making in retrobulbar neuroendocrine tumours in horses--case report and review of literature.. J Vet Med A Physiol Pathol Clin Med 2007 Aug;54(6):302-6.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0442.2007.00955.xpubmed: 17650150google scholar: lookup
  98. Manso-Díaz G, García-López JM, López-Sanromán J, Taeymans O. Magnetic resonance dacryocystography in the horse: A feasibility study.. Vet Ophthalmol 2020 Jan;23(1):129-134.
    doi: 10.1111/vop.12697pubmed: 31309693google scholar: lookup
  99. Nykamp SG, Scrivani PV, Pease AP. Computed tomography dacryocystography evaluation of the nasolacrimal apparatus.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2004 Jan-Feb;45(1):23-8.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2004.04004.xpubmed: 15005357google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 12 times.
  1. Sidwell A, Shanklin A, Miller H, Cahoon M, Hole SL, Bianco C, Pereira R. Full Clinical Pathological and Bacteriological Investigation of a Giant Nasal Polyp Associated With the Developing Apex of the Permanent Fourth Premolar (Triadan 108) in a 3-year-old Connemara Filly: A Case Report. Vet Med Sci 2026 Jan;12(1):e70756.
    doi: 10.1002/vms3.70756pubmed: 41457381google scholar: lookup
  2. Frey K, Perlini M, Reed R. Time Attenuation Curves for Equine Intravenous Contrast Enhanced Skull CT Using the Medial Saphenous and Cephalic Veins. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2026 Jan;67(1):e70115.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.70115pubmed: 41358792google scholar: lookup
  3. Ostendarp C, Barton AK. Intraocular Tumors in Horses: Diagnosis, Tumor Classification, Oncologic Assessment and Therapy. Vet Sci 2025 Oct 17;12(10).
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci12101006pubmed: 41150147google scholar: lookup
  4. Hartl B, Strohmayer C, Vali Y, Lyrakis M, Kneissl SM. Computed tomographic signs of hyoid apparatus disease in 165 horses. Front Vet Sci 2025;12:1631185.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2025.1631185pubmed: 41049149google scholar: lookup
  5. Riahi Z, Naeini AT, Zare R. Evaluation of maturation-related changes in maxillary sinus diameter and cheek teeth positioning relative to the maxillary sinus in the Dareshuri horse. J Equine Sci 2025;36(3):81-91.
    doi: 10.1294/jes.36.81pubmed: 40980337google scholar: lookup
  6. Lloyd-Edwards RA, Mulders E, Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan MM, Veraa S. Computed Tomography of the Hyoid Apparatus in Equine Headshaking Syndrome. Vet Sci 2025 May 23;12(6).
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci12060511pubmed: 40559747google scholar: lookup
  7. Gaida JL, Steinberg T, Stieger-Vanegas SM, Merle R, Lischer CJ. Equine Standing Multidetector Computed Tomography of the Distal Thoracic Limb and Tarsus Has a Lower Cumulative Radiation Dose than Digital Radiography. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2025 Jul;66(4):e70049.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.70049pubmed: 40420323google scholar: lookup
  8. Nourinezhad J, Abdi A, Moarabi A, Hanafi MG, Fatahian Dehkordi RA, Tomańska A. Major Salivary Gland Examinations of the Donkey (Equus asinus) Using Sectional Anatomy, Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Vet Med Sci 2025 May;11(3):e70298.
    doi: 10.1002/vms3.70298pubmed: 40198540google scholar: lookup
  9. Jasiński T, Turek B, Kaczorowski M, Brehm W, Skierbiszewska K, Domino M. Equine temporomandibular joint diseases: A systematic review. Equine Vet J 2025 Nov;57(6):1427-1445.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.14462pubmed: 39861936google scholar: lookup
  10. Borowska M, Lipowicz P, Daunoravičienė K, Turek B, Jasiński T, Pauk J, Domino M. Three-Dimensional Segmentation of Equine Paranasal Sinuses in Multidetector Computed Tomography Datasets: Preliminary Morphometric Assessment Assisted with Clustering Analysis. Sensors (Basel) 2024 May 30;24(11).
    doi: 10.3390/s24113538pubmed: 38894336google scholar: lookup
  11. Jasiński T, Turek B, Kaczorowski M, Brehm W, Skierbiszewska K, Bonecka J, Domino M. Equine Models of Temporomandibular Joint Osteoarthritis: A Review of Feasibility, Biomarkers, and Molecular Signaling. Biomedicines 2024 Feb 28;12(3).
    doi: 10.3390/biomedicines12030542pubmed: 38540155google scholar: lookup
  12. Borowska M, Jasiński T, Gierasimiuk S, Pauk J, Turek B, Górski K, Domino M. Three-Dimensional Segmentation Assisted with Clustering Analysis for Surface and Volume Measurements of Equine Incisor in Multidetector Computed Tomography Data Sets. Sensors (Basel) 2023 Nov 2;23(21).
    doi: 10.3390/s23218940pubmed: 37960639google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,850 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.