Time of contact and step length: the effect of limb length, running speed, load carrying and incline.
Abstract: Using published values for twelve species of birds and mammals, we investigated the effects of limb length and running speed on time of contact and step length. In addition, we measured the time of contact in horses trotting up a 10 % incline and when carrying a load averaging 19 % of their body mass. From these values, we calculated stride period and step length. Our analysis of the interspecific data yielded the following relationship between time of contact (t(c) in s) and leg length (L in m) and running speed (v in m s(-)(1)): t(c)=0.80L(0.84)/v(0.87) (r(2)=0.97). Both exponents in this relationship are significantly different from 1.0, indicating that step length increases with speed and that small species use a step length that, relative to their leg length, is longer than the relative step length used by larger species. Time of contact increased when a horse carried a load but not when it trotted up an incline.
Publication Date: 1999-12-23 PubMed ID: 10607532DOI: 10.1242/jeb.203.2.221Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
- Journal Article
- Research Support
- Non-U.S. Gov't
- Research Support
- U.S. Gov't
- P.H.S.
Summary
This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.
This research investigated the impact of variables such as limb length, running speed, load carrying and incline on the contact time and step length of various bird and mammal species, including horses. It found that step length increases with speed, and smaller species have a longer relative step length compared to larger species. It also highlighted that carrying load affected a horse’s contact time, but trotting up an incline did not.
Analysis of Interspecific Data
- The research began by using values for twelve species of birds and mammals, all published previously. The objective was to understand how limb length and running speed affect the time of contact with the ground and the length of each step the animals take.
- This data was examined and it produced a clear relationship between the time of contact, the length of the animals’ limbs, and their speed. The formula, t(c) = 0.80L(0.84)/v(0.87), with an r(2) value of 0.97, showed a strong correlation.
- The exponents in this equation, 0.84 for limb length and 0.87 for running speed, are significantly different from 1.0. This indicates that as speed increases, so does the step length of the animal. It also provides evidence that smaller species use a longer step, relative to their leg length, than larger species.
Effects of Load Carrying and Incline
- Additionally, the researchers measured the impact of carrying a load averaging 19% of the body mass on the time of contact. They chose horses as subjects for this portion of the experiment.
- The results showed that when a horse carries a weight, its time of contact with the ground increased. This means that carrying a load has a noticeable effect on the horse’s gait.
- Understanding the effects of carrying loads can be useful in various fields such as horse racing and other animal-related industries that might include load transportation.
- To test the impact of inclined running, horses were also made to trot up a 10% incline.
- Despite expectations, the research found out that the incline of the ground had no significant effect on the time of contact of a horse’s gait. This result could further direct studies focusing on animal locomotion on non-flat surfaces.
Cite This Article
APA
Hoyt DF, Wickler SJ, Cogger EA.
(1999).
Time of contact and step length: the effect of limb length, running speed, load carrying and incline.
J Exp Biol, 203(Pt 2), 221-227.
https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.203.2.221 Publication
Researcher Affiliations
- Equine Research Center and Department of Biological Sciences and Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA 91768, USA. dfhoyt@csupomona.edu
MeSH Terms
- Animals
- Energy Metabolism
- Extremities / physiology
- Female
- Horses / physiology
- Male
- Running / physiology
- Weight-Bearing
Grant Funding
- SO6 GM53933 / NIGMS NIH HHS
Citations
This article has been cited 25 times.- Bukhari SSUH, McElligott AG, Parkes RSV. Quantifying the Impact of Mounted Load Carrying on Equids: A Review. Animals (Basel) 2021 May 7;11(5).
- Daniels KAJ, Burn JF. Visuomotor control of leaping over a raised obstacle is sensitive to small baseline displacements. R Soc Open Sci 2021 Mar 10;8(3):201877.
- Rosengren MK, Sigurðardóttir H, Eriksson S, Naboulsi R, Jouni A, Novoa-Bravo M, Albertsdóttir E, Kristjánsson Þ, Rhodin M, Viklund Å, Velie BD, Negro JJ, Solé M, Lindgren G. A QTL for conformation of back and croup influences lateral gait quality in Icelandic horses. BMC Genomics 2021 Apr 14;22(1):267.
- Granatosky MC, Ross CF. Differences in muscle mechanics underlie divergent optimality criteria between feeding and locomotor systems. J Anat 2020 Dec;237(6):1072-1086.
- Halsey LG, White CR. Terrestrial locomotion energy costs vary considerably between species: no evidence that this is explained by rate of leg force production or ecology. Sci Rep 2019 Jan 24;9(1):656.
- Weihmann T. Leg force interference in polypedal locomotion. Sci Adv 2018 Sep;4(9):eaat3721.
- Giardina F, Iida F. Collision-based energetic comparison of rolling and hopping over obstacles. PLoS One 2018;13(3):e0194375.
- van Oeveren BT, de Ruiter CJ, Beek PJ, van Dieën JH. Optimal stride frequencies in running at different speeds. PLoS One 2017;12(10):e0184273.
- Sparrow LM, Pellatt E, Yu SS, Raichlen DA, Pontzer H, Rolian C. Gait changes in a line of mice artificially selected for longer limbs. PeerJ 2017;5:e3008.
- Hora M, Soumar L, Pontzer H, Sládek V. Body size and lower limb posture during walking in humans. PLoS One 2017;12(2):e0172112.
- de Ruiter CJ, van Oeveren B, Francke A, Zijlstra P, van Dieen JH. Running Speed Can Be Predicted from Foot Contact Time during Outdoor over Ground Running. PLoS One 2016;11(9):e0163023.
- Dececchi TA, Larsson HC, Habib MB. The wings before the bird: an evaluation of flapping-based locomotory hypotheses in bird antecedents. PeerJ 2016;4:e2159.
- Lorimer AV, Hume PA. Stiffness as a Risk Factor for Achilles Tendon Injury in Running Athletes. Sports Med 2016 Dec;46(12):1921-1938.
- Wilkinson H, Thavarajah N, Codd J. The metabolic cost of walking on an incline in the Peacock (Pavo cristatus). PeerJ 2015;3:e987.
- Birn-Jeffery AV, Hubicki CM, Blum Y, Renjewski D, Hurst JW, Daley MA. Don't break a leg: running birds from quail to ostrich prioritise leg safety and economy on uneven terrain. J Exp Biol 2014 Nov 1;217(Pt 21):3786-96.
- Kilbourne BM. Scale effects and morphological diversification in hindlimb segment mass proportions in neognath birds. Front Zool 2014;11:37.
- Kilbourne BM, Hoffman LC. Scale effects between body size and limb design in quadrupedal mammals. PLoS One 2013;8(11):e78392.
- Lees J, Nudds R, Stokkan KA, Folkow L, Codd J. Reduced metabolic cost of locomotion in Svalbard rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta hyperborea) during winter. PLoS One 2010 Nov 15;5(11):e15490.
- Brown WM, Price ME, Kang J, Pound N, Zhao Y, Yu H. Fluctuating asymmetry and preferences for sex-typical bodily characteristics. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008 Sep 2;105(35):12938-43.
- Sockol MD, Raichlen DA, Pontzer H. Chimpanzee locomotor energetics and the origin of human bipedalism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007 Jul 24;104(30):12265-9.
- Xiang Y, John P, Yakushin SB, Kunin M, Raphan T, Cohen B. Dynamics of quadrupedal locomotion of monkeys: implications for central control. Exp Brain Res 2007 Mar;177(4):551-72.
- McGowan CP, Duarte HA, Main JB, Biewener AA. Effects of load carrying on metabolic cost and hindlimb muscle dynamics in guinea fowl (Numida meleagris). J Appl Physiol (1985) 2006 Oct;101(4):1060-9.
- Lafortuna CL, Fumagalli E, Vangeli V, Sartorio A. Lower limb alactic anaerobic power output assessed with different techniques in morbid obesity. J Endocrinol Invest 2002 Feb;25(2):134-41.
- Bertschy M, Lino H, Healey L, Hoogkamer W. Is increasing the effective leg length of a human runner metabolically beneficial?. J Exp Biol 2025 Oct 15;228(20).
- Takahashi Y, Takahashi T, Mukai K, Ebisuda Y, Ohmura H. Changes in muscle activation with graded surfaces during canter in Thoroughbred horses on a treadmill. PLoS One 2024;19(6):e0305622.
Use Nutrition Calculator
Check if your horse's diet meets their nutrition requirements with our easy-to-use tool Check your horse's diet with our easy-to-use tool
Talk to a Nutritionist
Discuss your horse's feeding plan with our experts over a free phone consultation Discuss your horse's diet over a phone consultation
Submit Diet Evaluation
Get a customized feeding plan for your horse formulated by our equine nutritionists Get a custom feeding plan formulated by our nutritionists
