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Scientific reports2021; 11(1); 20932; doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-00449-6

West Nile virus seroprevalence and associated risk factors among horses in Egypt.

Abstract: Determination of the seroprevalence and risk factors that are associated with West Nile virus (WNV) in horses is essential for adoption of effective prevention strategies. Our objective in this study, therefore, was to determine the seroprevalence and to identify the risk factors associated with WNV infection in the most densely horse-populated governorates in Egypt. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 2018 on 930 horses, which were distributed over five governorates in the Nile delta of Egypt. The horses, which were randomly selected, were serologically tested through use of an ID screen West Nile competition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect anti-WNV immunoglobulin G (IgG) and plaque reduction neutralization tests (PRNT; gold standard) to confirm the seropositive status of animals and to avoid cross reaction with other flavi-viruses. Four variables (geographical location, breed, sex and age) were considered in the risk analysis. Univariable and stepwise forward multivariable logistic regression methods were used for risk-factor analysis. The odds ratio (OR) was used as an approximate measure of relative risk. A total of 156 (16.8%; 95% confidence interval (CI) 14.4-19.2; P < 0.001) serum samples were found to be serologically positive for WNV. The highest seroprevalence rate was detected in horses of age ≥ 15 years (68.1%; 95% CI 49.8-72.4), stallions (26.4%; 95% CI 22.7-30.4), and those of mixed breed (21.5%; 95% CI 17.7-27.5). Horses older than 15 years were found to be at increased risk of WNV infection with OR = 4.3 (95% CI 3.0-6.2, P < 0.001) compared with horses aged under 2.5 years. Also, when all the risk factors were considered, stallions were more likely than mares to be WNV seropositive (OR = 2.4, 95% CI 1.6-3.7, P < 0.001), and of the breeds, mixed-breed (OR = 1.9, 95% CI 1.2-2.8, P = 0.005) and Arabian horses (OR = 1.9, 95% CI 1.2-2.8, P = 0.005) were more likely to be seropositive. Geographical location seemed to have no impact on the seroprevalence of exposure to WNV among these horses. Due to these findings, we strongly recommend intensive surveillance and implementation of effective control and prevention strategies against WNV, especially in stallion, mixed-breed horses with ages ≥ 15 years.
© 2021. The Author(s).
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Publication Date: 2021-10-22 PubMed ID: 34686730PubMed Central: PMC8536702DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-00449-6Google Scholar: Lookup
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Summary

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The research article describes a study conducted in Egypt to determine the prevalence of West Nile virus (WNV) in horses and associated risk factors. The study found that 16.8% of tested horses were seropositive for WNV, with older horses, stallions, and certain breeds showing higher risk.

Research Objective and Method

  • The objective of this research was to establish the prevalence of West Nile virus (WNV) and identify the associated risk factors in horses in several regions of Egypt.
  • The researchers used a cross-sectional study, conducted in 2018, that included 930 horses from five different governorates in the Nile delta.
  • Horses were randomly selected and serologically tested using an ID screen West Nile competition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect anti-WNV immunoglobulin G (IgG), with plaque reduction neutralization tests (PRNT) used to confirm any seropositive results and to prevent cross contamination with other flavi-viruses.
  • The considered risk factors included geographical location, breed, sex, and age of the horses.

Findings and Risk Factor Analysis

  • Out of all sampled horses, 16.8% were found serologically positive for WNV.
  • In terms of individual traits, the researchers found the highest seroprevalence among horses aged 15 or older (68.1%), stallions (26.4%), and mixed-breeds (21.5%).
  • Older horses showed an increased risk of WNV infection, with an odds ratio (OR) of 4.3 compared to horses under 2.5 years old.
  • When all risk factors were considered, stallions were more likely to be WNV seropositive than mares, with an OR of 2.4.
  • Mixed-breed and Arabian horses displayed a higher likelihood of being seropositive, with an OR of 1.9.
  • Geographical location appeared to have no significant impact on WNV seroprevalence among these horses.

Conclusions and Recommendations

  • The results revealed significant presence of WNV in the horse population of Egypt, with particular risk factors such as age, sex, and breed.
  • In response to their findings, the researchers strongly suggest intensive surveillance and implementation of effective control and prevention measures, particularly for stallions and mixed-breed horses aged 15 years or older.

Cite This Article

APA
Selim A, Megahed A, Kandeel S, Alouffi A, Almutairi MM. (2021). West Nile virus seroprevalence and associated risk factors among horses in Egypt. Sci Rep, 11(1), 20932. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-00449-6

Publication

Scientific reports
ISSN: 2045-2322
NlmUniqueID: 101563288
Country: England
Language: English
Volume: 11
Issue: 1
Pages: 20932
PII: 20932

Researcher Affiliations

Selim, Abdelfattah
  • Department of Animal Medicine (Infectious Diseases), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Moshtohor-Toukh, 13736, Kalyobiya, Egypt. Abdelfattah.selim@fvtm.bu.edu.eg.
Megahed, Ameer
  • Department of Animal Medicine (Internal Medicine), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Moshtohor-Toukh, 13736, Kalyobiya, Egypt.
  • Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, IL, 61802, USA.
Kandeel, Sahar
  • Department of Animal Medicine (Infectious Diseases), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Moshtohor-Toukh, 13736, Kalyobiya, Egypt.
Alouffi, Abdulaziz
  • King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh, 12354, Saudi Arabia.
  • Vaccines Research of Infectious Diseases, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11495, Saudi Arabia.
Almutairi, Mashal M
  • Vaccines Research of Infectious Diseases, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11495, Saudi Arabia.
  • Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Cross Reactions / immunology
  • Cross-Sectional Studies
  • Egypt / epidemiology
  • Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay / methods
  • Horse Diseases / epidemiology
  • Horse Diseases / immunology
  • Horse Diseases / virology
  • Horses
  • Immunoglobulin G / immunology
  • Neutralization Tests / methods
  • Risk Factors
  • Seroepidemiologic Studies
  • West Nile Fever / epidemiology
  • West Nile Fever / immunology
  • West Nile Fever / virology
  • West Nile virus / immunology

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no competing interests.

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  10. Selim A, Marzok M, Gattan HS, Ismail H. Prevalence of mastitis and its associated risk factors in lactating camels in Northern Egypt. PLoS One 2025;20(10):e0333826.
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  11. Selim A, Marzok M, Gattan HS, Ismail H. Risk factors influencing Coxiella burnetii seropositivity in water Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) populations of Egypt's Nile Delta. PLoS One 2025;20(10):e0333680.
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    doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-02732-2pubmed: 40550828google scholar: lookup
  15. Selim A, Marzok M, Gattan HS, Bukhari K. Seroprevalence and risk factors of Peste des Petits Ruminants virus infection in small ruminants in the Nile Delta Region of Egypt. Trop Anim Health Prod 2025 Apr 2;57(3):153.
    doi: 10.1007/s11250-025-04368-wpubmed: 40172708google scholar: lookup
  16. Selim A, Marzok M, Gattan HS, Hereba AM. Factors influencing Akabane virus seroprevalence in sheep and goats in Egypt's Nile Delta. Trop Anim Health Prod 2025 Apr 1;57(3):146.
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  17. Gattan HS, Marzok M, AlJabr OA, Alruhaili MH, Salem M, Selim A. Seroprevalence and Risk Factors of Anaplasma marginale in Water Buffaloes in Nile Delta of Egypt. Acta Parasitol 2025 Jan 28;70(1):48.
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  18. Shoraba M, Shoulah SA, Arnaout F, Selim A. Equine Trypanosomiasis: Molecular Detection, Hematological, and Oxidative Stress Profiling. Vet Med Int 2024;2024:6550276.
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  19. Naveed A, Eertink LG, Wang D, Li F. Lessons Learned from West Nile Virus Infection:Vaccinations in Equines and Their Implications for One Health Approaches. Viruses 2024 May 14;16(5).
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  21. Radwan IT, Khater HF, Mohammed SH, Khalil A, Farghali MA, Mahmoud MG, Selim A, Manaa EA, Bagato N, Baz MM. Synthesis of eco-friendly layered double hydroxide and nanoemulsion for jasmine and peppermint oils and their larvicidal activities against Culex pipiens Linnaeus. Sci Rep 2024 Mar 22;14(1):6884.
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  22. Baz MM, El-Shourbagy NM, Alkhaibari AM, Gattan HS, Alruhaili MH, Selim A, Radwan IT. Larvicidal activity of Acacia nilotica extracts against Culex pipiens and their suggested mode of action by molecular simulation docking. Sci Rep 2024 Mar 15;14(1):6248.
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  23. Ben-Mostafa KK, Savini G, Di Gennaro A, Teodori L, Leone A, Monaco F, Alaoqib MMA, Rayes AA, Dayhum A, Eldaghayes I. Evidence of West Nile Virus Circulation in Horses and Dogs in Libya. Pathogens 2023 Dec 31;13(1).
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens13010041pubmed: 38251348google scholar: lookup
  24. Radwan IT, Ghazawy NAR, Alkhaibari AM, Gattan HS, Alruhaili MH, Selim A, Salem ME, AbdelFattah EA, Hamama HM. Nanostructure Lipid Carrier of Curcumin Co-Delivered with Linalool and Geraniol Monoterpenes as Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitor of Culex pipiens. Molecules 2024 Jan 4;29(1).
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  27. Gattan HS, Alshammari A, Marzok M, Salem M, Al-Jabr OA, Selim A. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection and associated risk factors in calves in Egypt. Sci Rep 2023 Oct 18;13(1):17755.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-44434-7pubmed: 37853002google scholar: lookup
  28. Baz MM, Selim A, Radwan IT, Alkhaibari AM, Khater HF. Larvicidal and adulticidal effects of some Egyptian oils against Culex pipiens. Sci Rep 2022 Mar 15;12(1):4406.
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