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Topic:Anatomy
Anatomy in horses encompasses the study of the structural organization of the equine body, including the bones, muscles, organs, and systems that function together to sustain life and enable movement. Understanding equine anatomy is important for veterinarians, equine scientists, and horse owners, as it provides insights into how horses move, how they respond to external stimuli, and how various conditions can affect their health and performance. Key anatomical features in horses include the musculoskeletal system, which provides support and locomotion; the cardiovascular system, which circulates blood and nutrients; and the respiratory system, which facilitates gas exchange. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the detailed anatomy of horses, focusing on the structure and function of different body systems, their interrelationships, and their relevance to equine health, performance, and veterinary care.
Diagnosis of equine neurologic problems. This is a review of the more common diseases of the spinal cord and various areas of the brain of horses. The results of a two and one-half year study of spinal cord disease are emphasized. After a description of the lesion the salient clinical signs are described and the features that differentiate them from other similar diseases. In the seminar, films of case and slides of lesions will be shown to document these diseases.
Horner’s syndrome in the horse: experimental induction and a case report. The findings in 6 experimental and 1 natural case of Horner's Syndrome (HS) are presented. The experimental cases were induced by unilateral surgical section of the cervical sympathetic trunk in the middle third of the neck. The naturally occurring case was seen in a 17 year old gelding with a mediastinal tumour. The signs of HS in these horses included ptosis, miosis, enophthalmos, hemilateral sweating and temperature increase of the face and cranial cervical region on the affected side. The intensity of these signs was variable between and within animals. Miosis, enophthalmos and temperature...
Collateral flow resistance and time constants in dog and horse lungs. We studied collateral flow resistance in exsanguinated, excised lower lobes and accessory lobes of dog and horse lungs, respectively. A double lumen catheter obstructed a peripheral airway isolating a segment of the lobe. Oxygen flowed into the segment via a rotameter which measured flow (Vcoll) while the inner catheter recorded segment pressure (Ps). Gas delivered into the segment flowed out via collateral channels. Collateral flow resistance was calculated as (Ps - PL)/Vcoll, where PL = static transpulmonary pressure. Rcoll at PL = 20, 10, and 5 cm H2O averaged 0.24, 1.25, and 2.65 cmH2O.ml-...
Male uterus in the donkey and horse. The anatomy and histology of the male uterus were studied in the donkey and the horse. In the former it was found complete and long, while in the latter it was incomplete or absent. Some variations met with are described. A new concept of "internal male hermaphroditism' is presented and two types are differentiated.
Proprioceptive innervation of the external cremaster muscle of some domestic mammals. The proprioceptive innervation of the external cremaster muscle of some domestic animals was studied. Muscle spindles and tendon organs with their well-known features were found, but this finding was uncommon and unexpected in the investigated animals. For this reason, we believe that there is no relationship between the presence of these proprioceptors and the cremasteric reflex.
Osteochondrosis in the horse. I. A clinical and radiologic investigation of osteochondritis dissecans of the knee and hock joint. The clinical and radiologic features of osteochondritis dissecans in the knee and hock joint of horses are described. The material includes 91 horses, of which 43 had the lesion in one or both knee joints, and 48 in one or both hock joints. It was found that osteochondritis dissecans of the knee joint was more common than the one in the hock joint in thoroughbreds and halfbreds, while the lesion in the hock joint was most common in standardbred trotters. In the knee the lesion was most often located to the lateral trochlear ridge. In the hock joint the predilection site was the intermediate ri...
Osteochondrosis in the horse. II. Pathology. An investigation was made of the pathology of osteochondritis dissecans of young foals and horses with clinical signs of the lesion. A randomly selected material of fetuses and young foals without clinical signs was also examined. It was demonstrated that osteochondritis dissecans is primarily a cartilaginous disease, as previously described in pigs and dogs. Thickening, disturbance of endochondral ossification, degeneration and necrosis of the cartilage were the four main features of osteochondritis dissecans. Cracks and fissures occurred in the degenerated and necrotic parts of the cartilage...
Regional blood flow to the stomach and small intestine in ponies. Studies on regional blood flow to the stomach and small intestine were performed in 9 anesthetized ponies. Carbonized microspheres (15 +/- 5 micron in diameter) labeled with 85Sr were injected into the left atrium to determine blood flow distribution. In 4 ponies, the regional flows to mucosal-submucosal layers of the stomach and the small intestine were also measured. The nonglandular region of the stomach received the least blood per 100 g of tissue, and the duodenum received the greatest. The regional blood flow to the duodenum was significantly higher than that to the glandular stomach reg...
Vestibular disease, and its relationship to facial paralysis in the horse: a clinical study of 7 cases. The signs observed in 6 cases of peripheral vestibular disease included incoordination, head tilt and nystagmus. The intensity of the signs varied greatly with duration of the disease, and in 3 cases facial paralysis was also present. Tympanosclerosis was demonstrable in all cases subject to radiology. Trauma was the causative factor in most cases. The causes of, and relationships between, vestibular dysfunction and concomitant facial paralysis are discussed. The exact etiology of the tympanosclerosis is unknown.
Ultrastructural observations suggesting merocrine secretion in the initial segment of the mammalian epididymis. Principal cells in the initial segment of the epididymis in horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, dogs, cats, and rabbits have an abundant, partly rough, endoplasmic reticulum and a large Golgi complex. Small vacuoles with opaque content seem to be formed by the Golgi complex and move to the cell apex, where they empty their contents into the lumen by a merocrine mechanism.
Vasculature of the equine and canine iris. Methyl methacrylic casts were prepared and tissue was freshly collected for histologic examination to compare the vascular supply and the structure of the vessels of the iris in the adult horse with those of the dog. In the horse, ciliary blood vessels divided in the iris and formed a complete major arterial circle of the iris. In the dog, the ciliary blood vessels divided in the ciliary body and, by means of recurrent branches, formed a complete arterial circle. From this circle, radial arteries extended toward the pupillary margin. The radial vessels in the horse were nearly straight and joi...
Studies on the equine placenta. III. Ultrastructure of the uterine glands and the overlying trophoblast. Ultrastructural studies of the uterine glands at intervals during pregnancy in the mare show that secretory activity continues after formation of the placental exchange units. The nature of the glandular secretion appeared initially to be proteinaceous, but cellular debris was also present during the last third of gestation. These secretions were absorbed by the trophoblast overlying the mouths of the glands. The fate secretions and their significance for the fetus and placenta are unknown.
[The arterial vessels and their intraosseous course in the leg bones of foals. II. Humerus]. The arterial blood vessels in 24 humeri of equine fetusses and foals are described. The relation between the age and the distribution of these arteries are explained and completely discussed.
Syringomyelia in a thoroughbred foal. The report describes a case of myelodysplasia involing spinal cord segments C7 to T8 of a 5 month old part-Thoroughbred foal. There was a single extensive syringomyelic and hydromyelic cavity which extended from the seventh cervical segment (C7), to the seventh thoracic segment (T7), abnormal size and shape of central canal, and disorderly differentiation of the grey and white matter. The cause of the defect is unknown.
A correlation of the endoscopic and pathological changes in subclinical pathology of the horse’s larynx. The larynges of 6 horses were examined endoscopically and the findings correlated with the gross and histological appearance of the intrinsic laryngeal muscles and their nerve supply. In all cases it appeared that the balance between abductor and adductor muscle groups had been lost due to preferential atrophy of individual muscles or groups of muscles. The laryngeal abnormalities recorded were asymmetry of the larynx with asynchronous left sided abduction and fluttering or trembling of the left vocal cord and arytenoid cartilage. It is suggested that these changes represent the early signs of...
Radiological protection in equine radiography and radiotherapy. The principles of radiological protection are summarised and consideration is then given to problems, which may confront the equine practitioner, in the fulfillment of these principles during diagnostic radiography of the limbs, head, and spine of the horse. The place of anaesthesia in such procedures is discussed and the special problems associated with therapeutic radiography of the horse are considered.
Telemetric measurements of strain in the metacarpus of the horse: a pilot study. The advances made by the use of a telemetric system in the study of bone strain in a free-moving horse are reported. A rosette strain gauge was bonded to the craniomedial aspect of the metacarpus of the horse. Attachment of a miniature FM transmitter to lead wires facilitated telemetric transmission of of resistance changes which corresponded to limb movement. During 3 different gaits, the trace pattern remained similar, although frequency and amplitude varied. The tracings were similar to those reported in other species in which nontelemetric transmission was used.
Intramural esophageal cyst in a horse. A yearling Quarter Horse colt was examined because of intermittent esophageal obstruction. A soft tissue mass was palpated in the cervical portion of the esophagus. Plain and contrast radiography and esophagoscopy were utilized to confirm the location of the lesion in the esophageal wall. Surgical exploration and removal of the mass was performed through a ventral midline cervical incision. Histologically, the mass was a keratinizing squamous epithelial inclusion cyst.
Horner’s syndrome in large animals. The sympathetic nervous innervation of the head was surgically transected in the horse, cow, sheep and goat. The site of transection was preganglionic in all 4 species and ganglionic-postganglionic in 2 additional horses. The Horner's syndrome, manifested as a result of the iatrogenic lesion, varied with the species. Ptosis was the most constant sign in all species. Unilateral sweating over the face and proximal neck, particularly at the base of the ear, was the most prominent feature in the horse. The cow revealed distension of vasculature and cutaneous heat of the pinna, and a reduced produc...
Ischemic myelopathy caused by fibrocartilaginous emboli in a horse. A horse that suddenly became recumbent had a focal ischemic infarct of the spinal cord between C6 and C7. The infarct was attributed to multiple fibrocartilaginous emboli. Adherence of fibrocartilaginous debris to the outer surface of the dura was interpreted as evidence that intervertebral disc degeneration and displacement of the nucleus pulposus had occurred and that the emboli arose from the disc.
