Infectious diseases in horses encompass a range of illnesses caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites. These diseases can affect various systems within the equine body, leading to symptoms that range from mild discomfort to severe systemic illness. Common infectious diseases in horses include equine influenza, strangles, equine herpesvirus, and West Nile virus. These diseases can be transmitted through direct contact with infected animals, contaminated surfaces, or vectors such as insects. Understanding the mechanisms of transmission, pathogenesis, and immune response is essential for effective prevention and control. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and management of infectious diseases in horses.
DITCHFIELD J, MACPHERSON LW.From outbreaks of upper respiratory infection of horses in the Toronto area between 1960 and 1963, several viruses have been isolated. The viruses, isolated in tissue cultures or eggs, include an equine strain of Myxovirus parainfluenzae 3; two strains of equine influenza virus, A/equi-1/Prague/56, and A/equi-2/Miami/63; equine rhinopneumonitis virus, and two newly recognized viruses of the horse, equine rhinoviruses. In addition serological evidence suggested a widespread infection with these viruses in the population under study. Because of the identical clinical picture seen and the complex...
Melnick JL, Hampil B.This paper summarizes the results of co-operative studies undertaken by the WHO International Reference Centre for Enteroviruses and a number of WHO Regional Reference Centres for viruses, WHO Virus Collaborating Laboratories, or other laboratories in a comprehensive testing programme of enterovirus equine antisera. The studies were designed to appraise the specificity of immune serum prepared in horses against five representative prototype enteroviruses (poliovirus 1, coxsackieviruses A9 and B3, and echoviruses 4 and 11). Tests for neutralizing antibody were performed not only against the hom...
ROCKEY JH, KLINMAN NR, KARUSH F.Anti-p-azophenyl-beta-lactoside (Lac) antibody has been isolated from equine antiserum by specific precipitation with Lac-HSA (human serum albumin) and Lac-Hy (hemocyanin). Antibody was separated from antigen by chromatography on DEAE cellulose and zone electrophoresis in solvents containing lactose. Six antigenically distinct immunoglobulins have been identified in purified equine anti-Lac antibody: 7S beta(2A)-globulin, 19S gamma-globulin, a 10S gamma(1) globulin, and three antigenically distinct 7S gamma-globulins. The specific hapten-binding activity of the 7S beta(2A)-antibody and of the ...
CASALS J.A study by hemagglutination-inhibition test showed that 19 strains of eastern equine encephalitis virus grouped themselves in two main types, which have been designated North American and South American. The former consists of ten strains from the eastern half of the United States, from Massachusetts to Florida; Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, and, subject to confirmation, Thailand. The South American type comprises nine strains from Panama, Trinidad, British Guiana, Brazil, and Argentina. The strains were isolated from different natural hosts over a period of 30 years.
Eysker M, Vercruysse J.The epidemiology, chemotherapy and control of strongylus infections in the horse are discussed. The annual cycle of various species are stated. In addition the anthelmintics available for treatment and control and the occurrence of anthelmintic resistance are referred to. Finally the options for control under various management conditions (little if any grazing; extensive grazing; intensive grazing) are discussed.
Kumar R, Sethi K, Gaur DK, Goyal SK, Kumar S, Jain S, Kumar S.Serodiagnosis of surra, caused by Trypanosoma evansi, is still based on native antigens purified from bloodstream form of T. evansi grown in rodents. In order to investigate prospective diagnostic possibilities as an alternative for native antigens, we cloned, expressed 26 kDa calflagin protein containing 218 amino acids from T. evansi (Indian Strain) in Escherichia coli. The potential of recombinant calflagin (rCLF) protein as diagnostic antigen was evaluated in immunoblot and indirect ELISA using experimentally infected equine serum samples from 0 to 84 days post infection. The antibodies a...
Atwill ER, Mohammed HO, Lopez JW, McCulloch CE, Dubovi EJ.To locate counties within New York state with a high seroprevalence among the equine population, to determine host, management, and environmental factors that were associated with seropositivity to Ehrlichia risticii, and to determine evidence for arthropod- or helminth-mediated transmission of E risticii to horses. Methods: Cross-sectional study. Methods: A random sample of 3,000 of the 39,000 equine operations in New York state was selected, and 2,587 horses from 511 operations were tested. Methods: Blood samples were collected from horses and tested for seropositivity, using the indirect fl...
Materniak-Kornas M, Rożek W, Rola J, Osiński Z, Löchelt M, Kuźmak J.Equine foamy virus (EFVeca) is a foamy virus of non-primate origin and among the least-studied members of this retroviral subfamily. By sequence comparison, EFVeca shows the highest similarity to bovine foamy virus. In contrast to simian, bovine or feline foamy viruses, knowledge about the epidemiology of EFVeca is still limited. Since preliminary studies suggested EFVeca infections among horses in Poland, we aimed to expand the diagnostics of EFVeca infections by developing specific diagnostic tools and apply them to investigate its prevalence. An ELISA test based on recombinant EFVeca Gag pr...
Odenkirchen S, Huskamp B.Casuistics of 200 patients with acute diarrhea (72 horses with salmonellosis, 55 horses with typhlocolitis, 73 horses with unspecific diarrhea) have been analyzed. It was shown, that horses with salmonellosis have been fallen ill with a primary disease for a longer period of time before the beginning of diarrhea than those with typhlocolitis and that in cases of salmonellosis antibiotics very often were used during the preliminary treatment. Frequently a primary illness of the colon was seen with typhlocolitis. Besides the frequent use of butylscopolamin during the pretreatment was noticed. Th...
Ebrahimi M, Hamidinejat H, Tanabandeh MR, Razi Jalali MH, Rasouli A.Diversity among the pathogenic strains of Theileria equi (T. equi), a major agent of equine piroplasmosis, can affect the appropriate detection of parasite and host immunization. Production of recombinant surface proteins from an infected horse in natural endemic area provides a reliable tool for immunodiagnosis of parasite. Regarding this, the present study was targeted toward the cloning, expression, and purification of the immunogenic regions of equine merozoite antigen 1 (EMA-1 gene), as one of the most important immunodominant surface proteins in T. equi, from naturally infected horses in...
Kareche H, Daly JM, Laabassi F.Equine influenza (EI) is one of the most contagious respiratory infections in horses, donkeys and mules, caused by equine influenza A virus (EIV). It remains a disease with a strong economic stake for the equine industry. This review focuses on the epidemiological situation of EIV in the Maghreb area, which includes Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. There is serological evidence for extensive circulation of EIV in the Maghreb area since the early 1970s, but reports of detailed investigation of outbreaks are scarce with no documented isolation or molecular characterization of EIV from Tunisia. Isol...
Hasslinger MA, el-Seify MA.The investigation of 156 donkeys in the area of the veterinary faculty of the Tanta University in Kafr el-Sheikh showed that 49 animals (31.41%) were infected with trematodes, 34 donkeys (21.80%) served as hosts for Gastrodiscus aegyptiacus, 22 (14.10%) were infected with Fasciola gigantica und 7 (4.49%) with both trematodes. 6 of 40 examined horses (15.0%) showed monoinfections with G. aegyptiacus only. Because of the fragmentary knowledge on these paramphistomides of equids, some aspects concerning the morphology, pathology and clinical symptoms, differential diagnosis, occurrence, host spec...
Cohen ND, Carey VJ, Donahue JG, Seahorn JL, Harrison LR.Epidemiological and pathological findings of 433 late-term abortions associated with the mare reproductive loss syndrome (MRLS) in central Kentucky were identified by reviewing the records of the University of Kentucky Livestock Diseases Diagnostic Center. The distribution of dates of abortion was clustered during a brief period of time, presumably from a simultaneous environmental exposure. The most common pathological findings were microscopic pulmonary lesions consisting of squamous epithelial cells present in alveoli with or without concurrent infiltration of inflammatory cells (neutrophil...
Aceto H, Miller SA, Smith G.To determine time to first detection of Salmonella organisms in feces of animals after experimental infection PO and times to onset of diarrhea and pyrexia to evaluate a common method for identifying nosocomial infections on the basis of time of admission and onset of clinical signs (ie, the 3-day criterion). Methods: Meta-analysis. Methods: Cattle, horses, goats, and sheep experimentally infected PO with Salmonella enterica subsp enterica. Methods: Online databases were searched for published reports describing results of experimental infection of cattle, horses, goats, and sheep PO with salm...
Jensen K.Examination of nasopharyngeal secretion and organ material from clinical cases of respiratory diseases in horses, using inoculation of embryonated hen eggs and rabbit and horse kidney cell cultures, resulted in the isolation of influenza virus and herpes virus. In 2 cases, both viruses were present in the same specimen. On the basis of the physio-chemical, cytological and serological criteria, the viruses were found to be identical with influenza virus type A equi 2 and herpes virus equi type 1. The methods for serological diagnosis and characterization of the influenza and herpes viruses are ...
Mohammed R, Nader SM, Hamza DA, Sabry MA.Cryptococcosis is an opportunistic mycozoonosis of global significance in a wide variety of host species. In equines, cryptococcosis is uncommon, and sporadic cases have been reported with rhinitis, sinusitis, pneumonia, and meningitis. Cryptococcus spp. represents a potential risk for immunosuppressed and healthy persons. In Egypt, epidemiological data on cryptococcal infection in horses are limited. The current study was carried out to investigate the occurrence of Cryptococcus spp. in horses and its possible role in the epidemiology of such disease in Egypt. A total of 223 samples was colle...
Mirck MH.In 3,791 horses and ponies submitted to the Department of Internal Disease of Farm Animals of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht, the faeces were studied for the presence of parasites. The results were classified by age groups and months of arrival. Eggs of the Strongylus type were found to be present in 57.3 per cent of the faecal samples, eggs of Parascaris equorum were present in 6.1 per cent, eggs of Oxyuris equi in 1.2 per cent, eggs or larvae of Dictyocaulus arnfieldi in 0.2 per cent, eggs of Anoplocephala in 2.5 per cent and oocysts of Eimeria leuckarti in 0.3 per cent. Eggs of...
Sato F, Hirota K, Tozaki T, Ito K, Dhakal P, Taya K, Endo Y, Murase H, Nambo Y.A Thoroughbred colt with ambiguous external genitalia was presented for clinical and histological examinations. The colt had a short penis that faced backward between his hind limbs. The measurements of luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, testosterone and ir-inhibin showed a tendency to increase gradually from April. Both the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome and amelogenin gene fragments were detected by the PCR method. A cytogenetic analysis revealed the 63,XO/64,XY mosaic karyotype (ratio 83:17). In autopsy, immature symmetrical subcutaneous testes were found in the ...
Adam EN, Morley PS, Chmielewski KE, Carman J, Gonzales G.Because of the contagious nature of influenza virus it is necessary to identify infected individuals after the virus is introduced into a population. The aim of this study was to characterise influenza virus detection with commercially available assays after intranasal vaccinating horses with cold-adapted influenza virus. Seven horses were vaccinated and placed with 3 unvaccinated horses. Nasal secretion samples were evaluated using 2 antigen detection assays. All 10 horses were positive in the Flu OIA assay during the study period, but only one horse was positive on one sample using the Direc...
Rosendal S, Lumsden JH, Viel L, Physick-Sheard PW.Neutrophils were isolated from the peripheral blood of adult equids (group 1) and were purified on a density gradient of polyvinylpyrrolidone-coated silica gel. A bactericidal assay was developed, using an equine skin isolate of Staphylococcus epidermidis as target bacterium in medium containing pooled fresh equine serum for opsonization. Significant (P less than 0.05) killing was observed after 60 or 120 minutes' incubation. Reduction in bactericidal function of blood neutrophils was not found after incubation with a virulent strain of Mycoplasma felis for 30 or 60 minutes. Similarly, the fun...
Petry S, Breuil MF, Duquesne F.Contagious equine metritis (CEM) detection by PCR is recognized by the European Union according to Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 846/2014, and real-time PCR is now recommended by the World Organisation for Animal Health Terrestrial Manual at the same level as the culture method. The present study highlights the creation of an efficient network of approved laboratories in France in 2017 for CEM detection by real-time PCR. The network currently consists of 20 laboratories. A first proficiency test (PT) was organized by the national reference laboratory for CEM in 2017 to evaluate th...
McGuire TC, Perryman LE, Banks KL.Following the descriptions of immunodeficiencies in horses beginning in 1973, there has been considerable effort to develop methods for differential diagnosis and to determine the cause and prevalence of the disorders. In addition, the equine immunodeficiencies, especially combined immunodeficiency, have been studied from a comparative viewpoint with the goal of finding information applicable to similar diseases of children. Coincident with the development of knowledge about the immunodeficiencies per se, considerable information about several aspects of immunology has been obtained. It is the...
Sudan V, Sharma RL, Gupta SR, Borah MK.The occurrence of Eimeria leukarti infection in equine is being sporadically documented despite its cosmopolitan prevalence. A Marwari mare, aged 3 years and 6 months and owned by a socio-economically weaker class of labourer of royal families, was suffering from non specific enteric disorders. Detailed systemic clinical examination of mare confirmed subclinical enteric infection with E. leukarti and piroplasms of Babesia (Theileria) equi in the circulating erythrocytes. She was therapeutically managed with synchronous administration of specific and supportive therapy with success. Non speci...
Arndt S, Kilcoyne I, Vaughan B, Dechant JE.To identify etiology, clinical findings, diagnostic results, treatment, and short- and long-term survival and to report factors associated with nonsurvival and survival in horses with peritonitis. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: Horses (n = 72). Methods: Medical records at William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital from 2007-2017 were reviewed for horses diagnosed with peritonitis. The essential inclusion criterion was a peritoneal nucleated cell count of ≥25 000 cells/μL. Gastrointestinal rupture and cases in which peritonitis occurred after abdominal surgery or cas...
Mir IA, Kumar B, Taku A, Bhardwaj RK, Bhat MA, Badroo GA.The present study was conducted to determine the prevalence of Rhodococcus equi infection in equines of Jammu and Kashmir, India, and evaluate the zoonotic threat posed by this organism to equine owners and tourists. One hundred and forty-one samples (98 samples from adult animals ≥5 years old and 43 samples from foals less than 6 months old) were collected in duplicate from nasopharyngeal tract of equines for isolation and direct PCR. A total of 12 isolates of R. equi were recovered, of which 9 were from foals and 3 from adult animals. Therefore, the present study recorded prevalence rates ...
Chvala S, Nowotny N, Kotzab E, Cain M, van den Hoven R.To evaluate use of the acupuncture meridian test for detection of recent or recently reactivated equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) infection in horses with decreased performance. Methods: Case-control study. Methods: 40 horses. Methods: Physical and neurologic examinations were performed, and acupuncture points on the bladder meridian were tested for sensitivity reactions in case and control horses. Polymerase chain reaction assays were performed to determine whether EHV-1 or equine herpesvirus type 4 (EHV-4) DNA could be detected in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Complement fixation (CF)...
Pusterla N, Mapes S, Leutenegger CM.A questionnaire was developed to document the knowledge base of large-animal diplomates of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine (ACVIM) regarding polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology and to identify the common use of this technology in equine practice. Ninety-three of the 278 mailed questionnaires were returned, for an overall response rate of 33.4%. Ninety respondents (99%) reported being familiar with the general principles of nucleic acid probe technology; however, only 52 (57%) knew the difference between conventional (traditional) and real-time (second-generation) PC...
Bridges CG, Edington N.Equine sera were used to immunoprecipitate radiolabelled virus-infected cell proteins; subsequent resolution with polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis identified the EHV-1 polypeptides VP 2, 10a, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 20, 21 and 23a. The humoral support of ADCC by these sera was examined in vitro. Cytotoxicity could be demonstrated against both subtypes irrespective of the immunising isolate. The implications of these results are discussed.
Tudor RA, Bowman KF, Redding WR, Tomlinson JE.A 9-year-old gelding was evaluated because of a 30-day history of mild intermittent left forelimb lameness. The only detectable abnormality was mild atrophy of the musculature of the proximal portion of the left forelimb. The cause of the lameness could not be determined. The horse was discharged from the hospital, but was reexamined 6 weeks later because of worsening of the lameness. At that time, the horse resisted flexion and extension of the left shoulder joint, and results of evaluation of an ultrasound-guided aspirate of fluid from the intertubercular bursa were suggestive of infection. ...
Mavadiya SV, Raval SK, Mehta SA, Kanani AN, Vagh AA, Tank PH, Patel PR.A highly contagious virus infection in horses, influenza is the single most important equine respiratory disease in the world. This paper presents details of a one-year study (1 June 2008 to 31 May 2009) to determine the prevalence of equine influenza in the horses of Gujarat State in India. The prevalence of equine influenza A/equi-2 was 12.02%, but none of the samples were positive for equine influenza A/equi-1. The prevalence of equine influenza (A/equi-2) was 15.38%, 11.94%, 10.18%, and 9.09% in horses of the Kathiyawari breed, a non-descript breed, the Marwari breed and the Indian Thoroug...
Campbell TM, Studdert MJ.Severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID) in foals is the only known animal model for the autosomal recessive form of primary SCID in man. A major requirement in the treatment of SCID is the maintenance of the patient in a disease free state until definitive therapy can be undertaken. This paper reviews the current status of prophylactic and definitive therapy in man and the horse. Particular emphasis is placed on the methods of reconstitution available, involving foetal tissues and bone marrow.
Finger MA, Biava JS, Dornbusch PT, Perotta JH, Ullmann LS, Serpa PBDS, Kmetiuk LB, Dos Santos AP, Biondo AW, Leutenegger C, Filho IRB.Molecular approaches to diagnose respiratory viruses have provided an opportunity for early and subclinical pathogen detection, particularly in samples from the upper respiratory tract. This study aimed to investigate the presence of herpesviruses, particularly equid herpesvirus (EHV)-2 and EHV-5, in samples from the lower respiratory tract of healthy racehorses from Southern Brazil. Unassigned: Samples from the lower respiratory tract (i.e., bronchoalveolar lavage fluid [BALF]) were assessed by video endoscopy, cytological evaluation of BALF, and tracheal aspirates (TA), along with quantitati...
Tryland M.In December 1801, the first vaccination against smallpox in Norway took place. Vaccine material came from Denmark, England, Ireland, and other countries; it was also obtained from a few local cowpox cases. What mattered was the effect, not the origin. Several reports indicate that variola virus itself, the cause of smallpox, was also used for human vaccination after passages through cows and horses. A vaccine institute for production of vaccine in calves was established in Kristiania in 1891. Cowpox was once a rare disease in cattle, but a total of 70,985 bovine cases were reported between 188...
Woods AC, Chesney AM.A filterable agent has been obtained from the humors and tissues of the eyes of horses suffering from active periodic ophthalmia. The intra-vitreous injection of this filtrate produced in normal horses the same clinical and pathological picture observed in the natural disease. This filtrate injected into rabbits produced a different clinical picture, but the essential pathological lesions closely resembled those found in horses. After passage of the filterable agent through six generations of rabbits, it again produced the clinical and pathological picture of the natural disease when injected ...
