The spleen in horses is an organ located in the abdominal cavity, playing a significant role in the circulatory and immune systems. It is involved in the storage and filtration of blood, as well as the production and recycling of red blood cells. The spleen also contributes to the immune response by producing lymphocytes and storing monocytes. In equine physiology, the spleen is known for its ability to contract and release a large reservoir of red blood cells into circulation, particularly during physical exertion, enhancing oxygen delivery to tissues. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, function, and clinical relevance of the spleen in equine health.
Nyack B, Padmore CL, Dunn D, Kufuor-Mensan E, Mobini S.A 10-year-old Tennessee Walker gelding, with a history of progressive weight loss, intermittent colic and lethargy, had a slight fever, tachycardia, tachypnea, pallor, ascites and marked ventral edema. Blood analyses revealed anemia, leukocytosis, neutrophilia with a left shift, lymphopenia, monocytosis, hypoproteinemia and a slightly increased SDH level. Abdominocentesis produced red-orange fluid with many RBC and an increased fibrinogen content. Rectal palpation revealed a large mass in the left caudal abdominal quadrant. The animal died shortly after resection of the mass. The histopatholog...
Patel JR, Edington N.Eleven isolates of equine herpesvirus-1 (subtype 1) all infected the brain following intracerebral inoculation of 2 d.o. mice. Most isolates were from cases of paresis, abortion or respiratory disease in the U.K., but established strains were also included. They divided into two subgroups. The 5 less pathogenic isolates were characterized by being restricted predominantly to the olfactory lobes. The 6 pathogenic isolates included the three known to cause equine paresis and were detected in neurones throughout the brain as well as giving rise to viraemia and infecting bronchial and renal epithe...
Arosio P, Gatti G, Bolognesi M.Various precipitating agents were examined in order to crystallize horse heart and spleen ferritins. Cadmium sulfate induced the crystallization of the spleen ferritin, while 2-methyl-2,4-pentanediol and poly(ethylene glycol) only induced that of the heart ferritin. Isoelectric focusing analysis showed that the crystals grown from cadmium sulfate contained only the more acidic isoferritins, and those grown from methyl pentanediol only the less acidic isoferritins. Heart ferritin crystallizes in a cubic space group, as previously reported for spleen ferritin crystals grown from cadmium sulfate....
Tablin F, Weiss L.The capacity of the equine spleen to store and rapidly release as much as half the circulating blood volume after adrenergic stimulation depends upon the size of the spleen, its muscular capsule, and the distinctive structure of its red pulp. The unit, or lobule, of red pulp is a cylinder of pulp spaces organized in a reticular meshwork, supplied by a peripheral ring of arterial capillaries, and drained by a central venule. Reticular cells, which make up the meshwork of the pulp, contain an extraordinarily large complement of microfilaments and intermediate filaments and are richly innervated ...
Vermeer C, Ulrich M.The presence of vitamin K-dependent carboxylase is demonstrated in the microsomal fraction of horse liver, spleen and kidney. The carboxylating enzyme systems in the spleen and in the kidney are susceptible to warfarin in a similar way as is carboxylase from the liver. It is concluded, that during the administration of vitamin K-antagonists (anticoagulation therapy) carboxylase in all these tissues is inhibited. Since most probably the majority of the reaction products of spleen and kidney carboxylase are no clotting factors, the inhibition of their production is a side-effect of the anticoagu...
Argiroudis SA, Kent JE, Blackmore DJ.The isoenzymes of creatine kinase have been measured in serum and selected tissues from horses. The distribution followed that reported in other species in that the MM dimer of the isoenzyme was present in voluntary and non-voluntary muscle, thyroid, liver, spleen, lung and intestine. The BB dimer of the isoenzyme was predominant in brain, pancreas, kidney, intestine, lung, spleen, liver and thyroid. In contrast, in 4 hearts examined less than 1.5 per cent of the total creatine kinase activity was attributable to the MB form of the isoenzyme. The MB isoenzyme was, however, present in intestine...
Bártek J, Viklický V, Franĕk F, Angelisová P, Dráber P, Jarosíková T, Nĕmec M, Verlová H.Five stable hybridoma lines were prepared using the myeloma cell line P3-X63-Ag.653 and spleen cells of mice hyperimmunized by pig transferrin. All hybridomas grew well in mouse peritoneal cavity and produced antibodies of the IgG1 subclass. Antibody preparations obtained from ascitic fluids tested for their capacity of antigen precipitation. No precipitation was obtained with single antibodies and with pairs of antibodies. Three out of 10 possible triads gave clear and sharp precipitation zones and rings in immunodiffusion tests performed in agar gel. All 5 antibodies were shown by quantitati...
Brumbaugh GW, Stitzel KA, Zinkl JG, Feldman BF.Myelomonocytic myeloproliferative disease in a horse was diagnosed on the basis of hematologic, enzymatic, and histopathologic findings. It was characterized clinically by depression, weight loss splenomegaly, lymphadenopathy, coagulopathy, and bacteremia. Hematologic findings included severe refractory anemia, thrombocytopenia, monocytosis, and pleomorphic leukocytes, with a left shift of the myeloid series. The serum lysozyme concentration was 14.5 microgram/ml (normal, less than 5 microgram/ml). The bone marrow contained many immature cells of the myeloid series and had a myeloid-to-erythro...
Webb AI, Weaver BM.The solubilities of halothane at a concentration of 0.77% v/v in 5% carbon dioxide in air at 37 degrees C were determined for a variety of equine tissues. The mean values for the tissue/gas partition coefficients for visceral tissue taken from 36 horses were 5.42 for whole brain, 4.82 for grey matter, 7.41 for white matter, 4.18 for myocardium, 2.76 for lung, 8.51 for liver, 3.21 for kidneys, 2.66 for gastrointestinal tract, 1.77 for blood and 2.45 for spleen. The mean coefficients for eight different muscles taken from 23 horses ranged from 2.43 for extensor carpi radialis to 4.91 for psoas m...
Thomas DP, Fregin GF.The purpose of this study was to measure cardiovascular, respiratory, and metabolic responses to graded treadmill exercise in the horse. A five-stage treadmill test up to 90% of predicted maximal heart rate was administered to five sedentary horses. The highest measured level of exercise produced a sixfold increase in cardiac output and a 41% elevation of stroke volume over standing values. Left ventricular, arterial, and right atrial pressures as well as the maximal time derivative of left ventricular pressure were all elevated during exercise. Under the same two conditions hematocrit (Hct) i...
Dumas MB, Spano JS.Alkaline phosphatase isoenzymes of equine tissues, peritoneal fluid, and serum were characterized by their electrophoretic mobilities, using polyacrylamide gel disc electrophoresis. The alkaline phosphatase isoenzymes in liver, kidney, spleen, small intestine, placenta, bone, small colon, and large colon tissue samples were extracted and separated by electrophoresis. The resulting isoenzyme mobilities and spectrophotometric scans were evaluated for their tissue specificity and for their possible use in determining the tissue contribution of alkaline phosphatase to serum and peritoneal fluid. T...
Gasa S, Makita A.Gangliosides were isolated from equine kidney and spleen, and their carbohydrate and lipid moieties were characterized. Among the long-chain bases, considerable proportions of trihydroxy bases (42.3 to 61.2% of the total bases), in which phytosphingosine was predominant were found in all the ganglioside classes. The other major base was sphingosine. Among the constituent fatty acids, long-chain acids (with a carbon number of more than 20), comprised approximately half the total acids, with some alpha-hydroxy and mono-unsaturated acids. By means of sequential hydrolysis with glycosidases couple...
Fernandez C, Möller G.After a primary immune response to the alpha 1-6 epitope of dextran B512, dextran high responder strains exhibit a specific inability to produce IgM and IgG antibodies against this epitope, although they gave an expected secondary response to horse erythrocytes. Spleen cells from dextran-primed and-suppressed mice responded well to dextran after transfer to lethally irradiated previously untreated mice, indicating that tolerance or exhaustive proliferation of dextran reactive B cells is not responsible. Thymus-dependent dextran-protein conjugates also induced specific suppression. Suppression ...
Speirs VC, Hilbert BJ, Blood DC.This paper describes the clinical signs and surgical treatment of 2 cases of dorsal displacement of the left ventral and dorsal colon. The condition, in which the colon becomes enclosed in the space bounded by the base of the spleen, the dorsal aspect of the suspensory ligament of the spleen (phrenicosplenic ligament), the left kidney and the adjacent body wall, is characterised by moderate to severe pain, minimal signs of shock, no response to medical therapy and a tendency for a ventral midline abdominal paracentesis to enter the spleen. Both horses recovered after surgical replacement of th...
Splitter GA, Incefy G, Iwata T, McGuire TC.Arabian horses with severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID) were evaluated for thymic hormone activities using thymic extracts and sera. Extracts prepared from thymus of SCID horses were able to increase the number of spleen cells responding to sheep red blood cells in irradiated, bone marrow-reconstituted mice. In addition, ultrafiltrates prepared from sera of these immunodeficient horses, which contained material with molecular weight of less than 50,000 Daltons could (a) induce a population of human bone marrow precursor cells to differentiate into cells bearing SRBC receptors and f...
Bertrand ML, Harris DC.To test whether the reactivity of ferritin iron is affected by the heat treatment used in ferritin isolation, we prepared ferritin from the same horse spleen with or without heating. Both samples exhibited similar reactivity upon reduction or chelation of iron.
Persson SG, Ullberg LE.The rate of disappearance of Evans blue dye from the blood after an intravenous injection was studied in young foals, between 4 and 105 days of age. This was found to be age dependant, especially during the first month, the initial dye disappearance being much faster than in the adult horse. This would mean an overestimation of plasma volume, using the single sampling technique, of about 5% during the first day of life, i.e. negligible from a practical point of view considering the standard error of estimation. The effect of exercise on the venous haematocrit was studied, too, in foals less th...
Dollahite JW, Younger RL, Crookshank HR, Jones LP, Petersen HD.Lead acetate was fed to 4 groups of 2 horses each to study chronic lead intoxication. A 5th group of 3 horses was maintained as controls. The leas was fed in capsules, with the minimum dosage of 6.25 mg/kg/day of lead as lead acetate (group I). The dose was increased from group I through group IV in an approximate geometric series, with each group being given about 125% of the dose given the previous group. These doses were given for 105 days, a period designated as phase 1. Since clinical signs were not observed after 105 days, the doses were increased and fed for an additional 190 days (days...
Roberts MC, Groenendyk S.Splenectomy was successfully performed on 2 aged horses to facilitate experimental studies of Babesia equi infection. Resection of part of the 17th rib provided the most acceptable approach and avoided many complications encountered on removing part of the 16th rib.
Moore JN, Kintner LD.Squamous cell carcinoma involving the pars esophagea of the stomach caused recurrent esophageal obstruction in an 11 year old Pinto gelding. The tumor encircled the esophagus and was attached to the diaphragm, spleen, aorta, left adrenal gland and kidney. Definitive diagnosis was provided by biopsy of the mass via standing left flank laparotomy.
McGuire TC, Banks KL, Davis WC.Combined immunodeficiency (CID) is a significant disease in terms of prevalence in Arabian foals and is a useful animal for study of a similar condition in children. Thymuses from all CID foals examined were extremely hypoplastic. Light and electron microscopic examination of thymuses from CID foals, as well as a thymus from an aborted CID fetus, demonstrate that the basic thymic structure is intact, despite a number of dissimilar morphologic appearances. From these data, we inferred that the thymic hypoplasia was caused by a failure of committed lymphocytes from the bone marrow to populate th...
Manohar M.It has been reported in exercising ponies that O2 supply to all regions of the brain increased primarily due to a large increment in CaO2 and it was implied that this may reflect a generalized increase in brain metabolism during strenuous exercise. Splenectomy ameliorates the rise in CaO2 observed with exercise in ponies. Thus, the objective of the present study was to examine changes in regional brain blood flow and O2 supply of splenectomized ponies with sub-maximal and maximal exercise and to compare these data with previous observations in normal ponies. It was reasoned that in the absence...
Kontoghiorghes GJ.The 2-hydroxypyridine-N-oxide derivatives, 2-hydroxypyridine-N-oxide, 2,4-dihydroxypyridine-N-oxide, 2-hydroxy-4-methoxypyridine-N-oxide and 2-hydroxy-4-(2'-methoxyethoxy)pyridine-N-oxide have been shown to remove iron from human transferrin and horse spleen ferritin at pH 7.4 at levels higher than those caused by desferrioxamine. Their reactions with transferrin were mainly biphasic and took 2-5 h to reach completion but iron mobilisation from ferritin was slower and their reactions continued after 40 h of incubation. The intraperitoneal and intragastric administration of 2,4-dihydroxypyridin...
Yamamoto H, Iida-Tanaka N, Kasama T, Ishizuka I, Kushi Y, Handa S.Equine kidney and spleen contain a Forssman active glycosphingolipid, and the structure of this glycolipid has been reported to be that of a globopentaosylceramide (GalNAcalpha-1,3GalNAcbeta-1,3Galalpha-1, 4Galbeta-1,4Glcbeta-1,1'Ceramide). We found that equine kidney contains several other anti-Forssman antibody-reactive glycosphingolipids. One of these acidic Forssman active glycosphingolipids was isolated and characterized by means of NMR, mass spectrometry, permethylation studies, and TLC-immunostaining. This glycolipid contains three moles of galactose, one mole of glucose, three moles of...
The genus is the only extant genus of the Equidae family, which belongs to Perissodactyla, an order of mammals characterized by an odd number of toes (odd-toes ungulates). Taking advantage of the latest release of the genome assembly, we studied, for the first time in two organisms belonging to the genus, the horse () and the donkey (), the T cell receptor gamma (TRG) locus encoding the gamma chain of the γδ T cell receptor. Forty-five Variable (TRGV) genes belonging to the seven IMGT-NC validated mammalian TRGV subgroups, 25 Joining (TRGJ) and 17 Constant (TRGC) genes organized in 17 V-J-...
Rivas LJ, Hinchcliff KW.To investigate the effect of i.v. administration of fluids on the furosemide-induced reduction in right atrial pressure (RAP) and relative change in blood volume (BV) of splenectomized mares. Methods: 5 splenectomized mares. Methods: RAP was measured by use of a micromanometer placed in the right atrium. Jugular venous blood was collected for measurement of hematocrit, plasma total protein concentration, and hemoglobin concentration. Right atrial pressure was recorded and blood samples were collected immediately before furosemide (1 mg/kg of body weight, i.v.) administration, then every 15 min...
WITZEL DA, MULLENAX CH.THE NEED FOR splenectomized horses in piroplasmosis research prompted this study. Quinlan et at.1 described in detail problems encountered using the paralumbar approach to splenectomy. Gaining easy access to the splenic ligaments and vessels was difficult; for this reason the type and age of horse which could be used were limited. The purpose of this report is to present technic by which horses of varying size, age, and conformation can be splenectomized with minimum of stress on the patient and on the surgeon.
Kim DY, Hodgin EC, Lopez MK, Nasarre C.A large primary retroperitoneal sublumbar neoplasm in a horse, with disseminated neoplastic foci in the brain, lung, kidney and spleen is described. The diagnosis was based on light microscopical studies and positive immunostaining for neuron-specific enolase. Because of the location of the primary tumour mass, the aortico-sympathetic ganglion (organ of Zukerkandl) is proposed as the origin.
Mehl ML, Ragle CA, Mealey RH, Whooten TL.A 5-year-old Quarter Horse was examined after it developed signs of abdominal discomfort as a result of a training accident. Oral mucous membranes were pale, and capillary refill time was > 3 seconds. Hematologically, the PCV was low, and abdominocentesis yielded a serosanguineous fluid. Abdominal ultrasonography was performed and revealed a large hypoechoic mass associated with the cranial margin of the spleen. Because differentiation between subcapsular hematoma and extracapsular hematoma could not be made with certainty, further evaluation of the spleen was indicated. Abdominal laparosco...
Spier S, Carlson GP, Nyland TG, Snyder JR, Fischer PE.An 8-year-old gelding with a 3-month history of anorexia and weight loss was found to have a massive subcapsular splenic hematoma. At flank laparotomy, 36 L of fluid was removed from the hematoma. The horse's condition improved after drainage. Fifteen months later, the horse became depressed and febrile. A splenic abscess containing Bacteroides ruminicola and Clostridium sporogenes was found at necropsy.
Young AC, Hoffmann KL, Begg AP, Major DA.We present a case of aggressive metastatic carcinoma in a horse that was initially presented for shoulder lameness. Although radiography and scintigraphy were useful for localising a lesion in the proximal humerus, subsequent development of non-specific signs of systemic disease prompted further evaluation. Haematology and blood biochemistry, urinalysis and ultrasonography were all instrumental in identifying renal involvement. A diagnosis of a peri-renal mass causing secondary renal failure prompted euthanasia of the horse because of the poor prognosis. Antemortem findings were supported by n...
Cheville NF, Prasse K, van der Maaten M, Boothe AD.A newborn foal developed generalized cutaneous mastocytosis characterized by multiple elevated nodules of mast cells in skin and basophil hyperplasia in bone marrow. Skin lesions began as small aggregates of mast cells that progressively enlarged, ulcerated, and regressed spontaneously. Eosinophil infiltration, collagen necrosis, and fibroplasia were characteristic of advanced lesions. Many new lesions developed during the first month of life but numbers progressively diminished. Large numbers of mast cells were present in biopsies of lymph node, spleen and bone marrow. Discrete aggregates of ...
Toribio RE, Bain FT, Mrad DR, Messer NT, Sellers RS, Hinchcliff KW.Three weak, recumbent neonatal foals with skin lesions, including a thin wooly coat, were born to mares being treated for equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Mares received sulfadiazine or sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, pyrimethamine, folic acid, and vitamin E orally. Foals were anemic, leukopenic, azotemic, hyponatremic, and hyperkalemic. Serum folate concentrations in the 3 foals and 2 mares were lower than those reported in the literature for clinically normal brood mares. Treatment was unsuccessful. For each foal, necropsy revealed lobulated kidneys with thin cortices and a pale medulla, a...
Rigg DL, Reinertson EL, Buttrick ML.Splenectomy was performed electively on 80 ponies, horses, and donkeys for preparation in collecting Babesia antigens. Access to the abdomen was by resection of the sixteenth left rib and incision of the diaphragm. The technique afforded good exposure of the splenic vessels and attachments. Closure was facilitated by preservation of the periosteum of the resected rib. Difficulty was encountered both in surgical technique and postoperative complications in obese animals. The transthoracic approach was found to be a useful technique for equine splenectomy.
Bertrand ML, Harris DC.To test whether the reactivity of ferritin iron is affected by the heat treatment used in ferritin isolation, we prepared ferritin from the same horse spleen with or without heating. Both samples exhibited similar reactivity upon reduction or chelation of iron.
Tessler J.The fluorescent antibody reaction was studied in tissues of ponies infected with African horsesickness virus (AHSV). Lung, spleen, lymph node, liver, skeletal muscle, intestine, stomach, nerve ganglion and kidney were sectioned and stained by the direct fluorescent antibody technique (FA). Fluorescence was demonstrated only in the spleen and could be inhibited by using unconjugated antiserum.
Govaere J, Maes S, Saey V, Blancke W, Hoogewijs M, Deschauwer C, Smits K, Roels K, Vercauteren G, de Kruif A.This paper describes a case of uterine fibrosarcoma in an 18-year-old Warmblood mare. The mare had exhibited bloody fluid accumulation inside the uterus and vaginal haemorrhagic discharge since the previous foaling. The mare was euthanized, and on pathological examination, in addition to the uterine neoplasia, multiple metastases were found in the lungs, liver and spleen. The histological and immunohistochemical examination determined that the tumour was a fibrosarcoma. To our knowledge, this is the first paper to describe a uterine fibrosarcoma in a mare.
Dollahite JW, Younger RL, Crookshank HR, Jones LP, Petersen HD.Lead acetate was fed to 4 groups of 2 horses each to study chronic lead intoxication. A 5th group of 3 horses was maintained as controls. The leas was fed in capsules, with the minimum dosage of 6.25 mg/kg/day of lead as lead acetate (group I). The dose was increased from group I through group IV in an approximate geometric series, with each group being given about 125% of the dose given the previous group. These doses were given for 105 days, a period designated as phase 1. Since clinical signs were not observed after 105 days, the doses were increased and fed for an additional 190 days (days...
Conrado FO, Iapoce N, Batista-Linhares M, Lopez S, Matthews MH, McKinney CA, Rothacker C.An 18-year-old, grey, Thoroughbred Cross gelding was referred to the Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University following a 3-week history of low-grade fever of unknown origin, distal limb swelling, and weight loss. Clinical examination identified a few black, round, smooth nodules along the ventral aspect of the proximal tail. Transabdominal ultrasound showed a markedly enlarged heterogenous spleen, hyperechoic liver nodules, and evidence of peritonitis with fibrin deposition. A mature neutrophilia was noted on complete blood count with variable numbers of phagocytized granule...
Geelen SN, Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan MM.A splenic hemangiosarcoma with multiple organ metastases in a pony is reported. Clinical signs included weakness and pallor. Abdominal paracentesis revealed haemorrhagic fluid. Laboratory data included anaemia, thrombocytopenia and hypoproteinaemia. Necropsy findings included a haemangiosarcoma in the spleen with metastases in the lung, liver, kidney and omentum.
Fouad KE, Elzomor S, Farghali HAM, Emam IA.There are varieties of surgical approaches reported for equine splenectomy and all of them were dealing with the most reachable situation of splenic hilus and easy handling of the spleen. The aim of this work was to establish the normal ultrasound parameters of spleen in donkeys (normal echogenicity, hilus situation, topographic location and correlation with neighboring organs) as a guide to select the best approach for total splenectomy in donkeys. Splenic ultrasound was carried out on six normal donkeys before experimental total splenectomy in the standing position. The splenic topographic l...
Jönsson L, Beck-Friis J, Renström LH, Nikkilä T, Thebo P, Sundquist B.Ten aborted foals, diagnosed as infected with Equine Herpes Virus 1 (EHV-1) on histopathological criteria, were examined for the presence of EHV-1 using immunohistology as the investigative instrument. The primary reagent was an antiserum specific for viral envelope glycoproteins. Immunohistology localised EHV-1 to areas of liver necrosis and to the cytoplasm of infected Kupffer cells and hepatocytes. Cytoplasmic immunolabelling was also prominent in reticular cells of the red pulp of the spleen and in intact and degenerated bronchiolar epithelium. Cytoplasmic immunolabelling was seen in morph...
Speirs VC, Hilbert BJ, Blood DC.This paper describes the clinical signs and surgical treatment of 2 cases of dorsal displacement of the left ventral and dorsal colon. The condition, in which the colon becomes enclosed in the space bounded by the base of the spleen, the dorsal aspect of the suspensory ligament of the spleen (phrenicosplenic ligament), the left kidney and the adjacent body wall, is characterised by moderate to severe pain, minimal signs of shock, no response to medical therapy and a tendency for a ventral midline abdominal paracentesis to enter the spleen. Both horses recovered after surgical replacement of th...
Vermeer C, Ulrich M.The presence of vitamin K-dependent carboxylase is demonstrated in the microsomal fraction of horse liver, spleen and kidney. The carboxylating enzyme systems in the spleen and in the kidney are susceptible to warfarin in a similar way as is carboxylase from the liver. It is concluded, that during the administration of vitamin K-antagonists (anticoagulation therapy) carboxylase in all these tissues is inhibited. Since most probably the majority of the reaction products of spleen and kidney carboxylase are no clotting factors, the inhibition of their production is a side-effect of the anticoagu...
Arosio P, Gatti G, Bolognesi M.Various precipitating agents were examined in order to crystallize horse heart and spleen ferritins. Cadmium sulfate induced the crystallization of the spleen ferritin, while 2-methyl-2,4-pentanediol and poly(ethylene glycol) only induced that of the heart ferritin. Isoelectric focusing analysis showed that the crystals grown from cadmium sulfate contained only the more acidic isoferritins, and those grown from methyl pentanediol only the less acidic isoferritins. Heart ferritin crystallizes in a cubic space group, as previously reported for spleen ferritin crystals grown from cadmium sulfate....
Kadir FH, al-Massad FK, Fatemi SJ, Singh HK, Wilson MT, Moore GR.Reactions of reduced horse spleen ferritin with horse and Saccharomyces cerevisiae ferricytochromes c, cow ferricytochrome b5, sperm-whale metmyoglobin and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ferricytochrome c-551 were investigated by u.v.-visible spectrophotometry. In all cases the reduced ferritin reduced the ferrihaemoproteins. The rate of reduction varied from less than 0.2 M-1.s-1 for metmyoglobin to 1.1 x 10(3) M-1.s-1 for horse ferricytochrome c (0.1 M-phosphate buffer, pH 7.4, at 25 degrees C). We conclude that the mechanism of ferrihaemoprotein reduction involves long-range electron transfer throu...
Hughes SB, Quan M, Guthrie A, Schulman M.The insulin-like growth factor system (insulin-like growth factor 1, insulin-like growth factor 2, insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor, insulin-like growth factor 2 receptor and six insulin-like growth factor-binding proteins) and insulin are essential to muscle metabolism and most aspects of male and female reproduction. Insulin-like growth factor and insulin play important roles in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation and the maintenance of cell differentiation in mammals. In order to better understand the local factors that regulate equine physiology, such as muscle metabolism a...
