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Preventive veterinary medicine2011; 100(1); 53-63; doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.03.002

A case-control study of risk factors for equine influenza spread onto horse premises during the 2007 epidemic in Australia.

Abstract: The 2007 epidemic of equine influenza in Australia provided an opportunity to investigate the effectiveness of on-farm biosecurity measures in preventing the spread of a novel pathogen in a largely naive population. We conducted a case-control study of 200 horse premises from highly affected regions of the state of New South Wales (NSW), to investigate risk factors for the spread of equine influenza onto horse premises, specifically, non-compliance with biosecurity measures recommended to horse owners by the relevant animal health authority, the NSW Department of Primary Industries. The study was restricted to cases occurring during the first seven weeks of the epidemic, a period prior to vaccination and the relaxation of some movement restrictions. Case and control premises were selected from a laboratory testing dataset and interviews were conducted with horse owners and managers on premises between July and November 2009. The proximity of premises to the nearest infected premises was the factor most strongly associated with case status. Case premises were more likely than control premises to be within 5 km and beyond 10 km of an infected premises. Having a footbath in place on the premises before any horses were infected was associated with a nearly four-fold reduction in odds of infection (odds ratio=0.27; 95% confidence interval: 0.09, 0.83). This protective association may have reflected overall premises biosecurity standards related to the fomite transmission of equine influenza. Compliance with certain on-farm biosecurity practices seemingly prevented horses on premises in high risk areas being infected with equine influenza during the 2007 outbreak in Australia. In future outbreaks, in addition to broader disease control measures, on-farm biosecurity practices should be adopted by horse owners and managers to prevent equine influenza spread.
Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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Publication Date: 2011-04-08 PubMed ID: 21481961DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.03.002Google Scholar: Lookup
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  • Journal Article
  • Research Support
  • Non-U.S. Gov't

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research investigated risk factors that contributed to the spread of equine influenza (horse flu) during the 2007 epidemic in Australia. The study found that close proximity to infected premises and non-compliance with biosecurity measures were the primary risk factors while using footbaths for horses was shown to significantly reduce the chances of infection.

Methodology

  • The study comprised a case-control method based on 200 horse premises selected from areas in New South Wales (NSW) that were most affected by the flu outbreak.
  • Data for the study was collected from laboratory testing datasets and through interviews with horse owners and managers conducted between July and November 2009.
  • The study focused on cases that occurred within the first seven weeks of the epidemic, before the introduction of vaccinations and the lifting of some movement restrictions.

Key Findings

  • The most significant factor contributing to the spread of equine influenza was the proximity to an infected horse premises. The risk of infection was significantly higher for horse premises located within 5 km and beyond 10 km of infected sites.
  • The study found that having a footbath on site before any horses were infected reduced the odds of infection by nearly four times. This reflected the role of on-premises biosecurity measures, including those related to fomite (objects or materials likely to carry infection) transmission, in preventing the spread of equine influenza.

Suggestions for Future Outbreaks

  • The study indicates that in the event of future outbreaks, horse owners and managers should embrace and rigorously implement recommended on-site biosecurity practices in addition to widespread disease control measures.
  • Such practices, including the use of footbaths, were found beneficial in high-risk areas, preventing the spread of equine influenza during the 2007 outbreak in Australia.

Cite This Article

APA
Firestone SM, Schemann KA, Toribio JA, Ward MP, Dhand NK. (2011). A case-control study of risk factors for equine influenza spread onto horse premises during the 2007 epidemic in Australia. Prev Vet Med, 100(1), 53-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.03.002

Publication

Preventive veterinary medicine
ISSN: 1873-1716
NlmUniqueID: 8217463
Country: Netherlands
Language: English
Volume: 100
Issue: 1
Pages: 53-63

Researcher Affiliations

Firestone, Simon M
  • Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW 2570, Australia. simon.firestone@sydney.edu.au
Schemann, Kathrin A
    Toribio, Jenny-Ann L M L
      Ward, Michael P
        Dhand, Navneet K

          MeSH Terms

          • Animal Husbandry / methods
          • Animals
          • Case-Control Studies
          • Disease Outbreaks / veterinary
          • Horse Diseases / epidemiology
          • Horse Diseases / transmission
          • Horse Diseases / virology
          • Horses
          • Influenza A Virus, H3N8 Subtype / isolation & purification
          • New South Wales / epidemiology
          • Orthomyxoviridae Infections / epidemiology
          • Orthomyxoviridae Infections / transmission
          • Orthomyxoviridae Infections / veterinary
          • Risk Factors
          • Surveys and Questionnaires

          Citations

          This article has been cited 11 times.
          1. Gonzalez-Obando J, Forero JE, Zuluaga-Cabrera AM, Ruiz-Saenz J. Equine Influenza Virus: An Old Known Enemy in the Americas. Vaccines (Basel) 2022 Oct 14;10(10).
            doi: 10.3390/vaccines10101718pubmed: 36298583google scholar: lookup
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            doi: 10.3390/vaccines8010107pubmed: 32121419google scholar: lookup
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            pubmed: 29755187
          4. Kuster K, Cousin ME, Jemmi T, Schüpbach-Regula G, Magouras I. Expert Opinion on the Perceived Effectiveness and Importance of On-Farm Biosecurity Measures for Cattle and Swine Farms in Switzerland. PLoS One 2015;10(12):e0144533.
            doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0144533pubmed: 26656893google scholar: lookup
          5. Paillot R. A Systematic Review of Recent Advances in Equine Influenza Vaccination. Vaccines (Basel) 2014 Nov 14;2(4):797-831.
            doi: 10.3390/vaccines2040797pubmed: 26344892google scholar: lookup
          6. Schemann K, Firestone SM, Taylor MR, Toribio JA, Ward MP, Dhand NK. Perceptions of vulnerability to a future outbreak: a study of horse managers affected by the first Australian equine influenza outbreak. BMC Vet Res 2013 Jul 31;9:152.
            doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-9-152pubmed: 23902718google scholar: lookup
          7. Firestone SM, Cogger N, Ward MP, Toribio JA, Moloney BJ, Dhand NK. The influence of meteorology on the spread of influenza: survival analysis of an equine influenza (A/H3N8) outbreak. PLoS One 2012;7(4):e35284.
            doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0035284pubmed: 22536366google scholar: lookup
          8. Firestone SM, Christley RM, Ward MP, Dhand NK. Adding the spatial dimension to the social network analysis of an epidemic: investigation of the 2007 outbreak of equine influenza in Australia. Prev Vet Med 2012 Sep 15;106(2):123-35.
            doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2012.01.020pubmed: 22365721google scholar: lookup
          9. Turcotte GK, O'Sullivan TL, Spence KL, Winder CB, Greer AL. Biosecurity perspectives of equestrian competition organizers in Ontario, Canada. Front Vet Sci 2025;12:1713303.
            doi: 10.3389/fvets.2025.1713303pubmed: 41659966google scholar: lookup
          10. McGilvray TA, Stevens KB, Spence KL, Rosanowski SM, Slater J, Cardwell JM. Spatiotemporal patterns in British racing and equestrian sports: Implications for pathogen transmission. Equine Vet J 2026 Mar;58(2):497-507.
            doi: 10.1111/evj.70126pubmed: 41351275google scholar: lookup
          11. Dutuze MF, Espino A, Christofferson RC. Assessment of Risk Factors Associated with and Practices of Cattle Farmers in Kirehe District Rwanda with Respect to Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Pathogens. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2024 Dec 4;111(6):1364-1372.
            doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.24-0099pubmed: 39293425google scholar: lookup
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