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Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007)2025; doi: 10.1002/ar.70092

Could “wild horses” drag you away? Quantifying muscular architecture in the forelimbs of extant, non-domestic equids (Perissodactyla: Equidae).

Abstract: Equid evolution is characterized by a high diversity of extinct species and morphologies, whereas extant equids share a superficially similar, monodactyl morphology. This inferred musculoskeletal similarity of modern equid limbs remains unexplored, and it is often assumed that domestic horse limbs are representative for wild equids (e.g., zebras, onagers, etc.). Our aim was to quantitatively describe the muscle architecture and arrangement of all forelimb muscles in extant wild Equus species to test this assumption, and investigate any differences between the species. We hypothesized that there would be subtle variation linked to locomotion on the different substrates that these species encounter. Gross dissections were performed to record muscle attachment sites and to quantify architectural metrics: muscle-tendon unit (MTU) length, MTU mass, muscle mass, pennation angle, and fascicle length; physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) of the muscles and tendon cross-sectional area (TCSA) of the distal ligaments were then calculated. Qualitative results confirm common origin and insertion sites of all muscles across all Equus species. When normalized for size, the forelimb muscles across equids generally exhibit comparable muscular architecture and force-generating capacities. However, we observed a trend for higher force-generating potential in the distal limb flexor muscles in two species of zebra naturally found in habitats with inclined or uneven substrates. Although limited by sample size, these results indicate that scaled data for modern wild equids are generally very comparable, which may enable much smoother translation of experimental data from domestic horses into digital simulations of wild equid locomotion, including for extinct equids.
© 2025 American Association for Anatomy.
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Publication Date: 2025-11-20 PubMed ID: 41267484DOI: 10.1002/ar.70092Google Scholar: Lookup
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  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Overview

  • This study investigates the muscle structure of the forelimbs in wild horse species (Equus genus) to determine whether domestic horse limb data accurately represent wild equid muscular anatomy and function.
  • The research compares the muscle architecture of different wild equid species to identify potential adaptations linked to their natural environments and locomotion.

Introduction and Background

  • Equids (members of the horse family) have a rich evolutionary history with many extinct species that exhibited diverse limb morphologies.
  • Modern equids (like horses, zebras, and onagers) share a similar monodactyl (single-toed) limb structure, but it is not clear if this similarity extends to the underlying muscle architecture.
  • Typically, domestic horse limb anatomy is used as a reference for wild equids, yet this assumption has not been extensively tested.
  • The study aims to quantitatively assess the forelimb muscles of wild Equus species to clarify if domestic horse data are representative for the group.
  • Researchers hypothesize subtle differences in muscle characteristics among species that relate to their natural habitats and locomotion styles, especially since wild equids move on varied terrains.

Methods

  • Gross dissections were performed on forelimbs of multiple extant wild Equus species (examples include different types of zebras and onagers).
  • Muscle attachment sites were documented to verify common origins and insertions across species.
  • Architectural metrics measured included:
    • Muscle-tendon unit (MTU) length
    • MTU mass and muscle mass
    • Pennation angle (angle of muscle fibers relative to the tendon)
    • Fascicle length (length of bundles of muscle fibers)
  • Physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) was calculated to estimate muscles’ force-generating capacity.
  • Tendon cross-sectional area (TCSA) of the distal ligaments was also measured.
  • All metrics were normalized to body size to allow fair comparison between different species.

Key Findings

  • Qualitative observations confirmed that all studied wild Equus species share similar muscle attachment points in their forelimbs, indicating a conserved musculoskeletal design.
  • When size differences were accounted for, the overall architectural traits of forelimb muscles were largely comparable across all species.
  • A noticeable trend was found in two zebra species that live on inclined or uneven terrains:
    • They exhibited higher force-generating potential, specifically in the distal limb flexor muscles (those responsible for bending the limb).
    • This suggests some level of muscular adaptation linked to the challenging substrate these zebras navigate regularly.
  • Despite some subtle differences, the general muscular architecture is fairly uniform among wild Equus species.

Implications and Significance

  • The study supports the common practice of using domestic horse limb data as a proxy for wild equids in biomechanical research and modeling.
  • This finding facilitates the application of domestic horse experimental data to digital simulations of wild equid locomotion, improving our understanding of how these animals move.
  • Insights gained may help reconstruct locomotor function in extinct equid species by extrapolation from modern analogs.
  • The observed minor muscular differences tied to habitat suggest that evolution fine-tunes muscle architecture to environmental demands but does so within a largely conserved framework.

Limitations and Future Directions

  • The study acknowledges a limited sample size, which may restrict the detection of subtle or species-specific differences.
  • Future research could include a larger number of specimens and species to better assess variability and confirm preliminary findings.
  • Additional studies could explore hindlimb muscle architecture and other anatomical features to provide a more comprehensive view.
  • Investigations incorporating locomotion kinematics and muscle function in different substrates would further clarify functional adaptations.

Cite This Article

APA
De Ridder T, Aerts P, MacLaren JA. (2025). Could “wild horses” drag you away? Quantifying muscular architecture in the forelimbs of extant, non-domestic equids (Perissodactyla: Equidae). Anat Rec (Hoboken). https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.70092

Publication

Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007)
ISSN: 1932-8494
NlmUniqueID: 101292775
Country: United States
Language: English

Researcher Affiliations

De Ridder, Tim
  • Department of Biology, Universiteit Antwerpen, Antwerp, Belgium.
Aerts, Peter
  • Department of Biology, Universiteit Antwerpen, Antwerp, Belgium.
  • Movement and Sports Sciences, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium.
MacLaren, Jamie A
  • Department of Biology, Universiteit Antwerpen, Antwerp, Belgium.
  • Evolution & Diversity Dynamics Lab, UR Geology, Université de Liège, Liège, Belgium.
  • Palaeobiosphere Evolution Lab, Institute of Natural Sciences, Brussels, Belgium.

Grant Funding

  • Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
  • University Research Fund (BOF-UA) of the University of Antwerp

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