Equine influenza.
Abstract: Influenza continues to be one of the most important diseases of horses despite the availability and widespread use of equine influenza vaccines for almost 30 years. In recent years, infection with the influenza A/equine/2 subtype has become endemic in the equine populations of North America, Europe, and Scandinavia. Continued antigenic drift of field virus has compromised the efficacy of vaccines, most of which contain antigens prepared from influenza viruses isolated more than 10 years ago. This article reviews the history, virology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, immunology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, treatment, control, and prevention of influenza in horses and emphasizes recent developments in diagnostic methods and vaccine technology.
Publication Date: 1993-08-01 PubMed ID: 8358645DOI: 10.1016/s0749-0739(17)30395-4Google Scholar: Lookup
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Summary
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This research article focuses on equine influenza, a widespread and significant disease affecting horses globally, in spite of nearly three decades of vaccine use. The paper delves into its history, virology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, and more, also emphasizing new developments in both diagnostic methods and vaccine technology.
Overview of Equine Influenza
Equine influenza is a highly contagious disease in horses that continues to be a major concern. It spreads rapidly among horses not previously exposed or unvaccinated, and despite the creation and widespread use of equine influenza vaccines for almost 30 years, its occurrence remains significant. Particularly, the research indicates that the influenza A/equine/2 subtype has become endemic, meaning it is commonly found and widespread, among equine populations in North America, Europe, and Scandinavia.
Continued Antigenic Drift and Vaccine Efficacy
- The article notes the consequential factors such as continued antigenic drift, which refers to the changes and mutations that occur in the virus’s surface proteins, compromising the efficacy of vaccines.
- Most of the current vaccines contain antigens developed from influenza viruses that were secluded over a decade ago. Owing to the constant mutation of the viruses, these vaccines have now become less effective in preventing the disease.
Comprehensive Examination of Equine Influenza
The research explores several aspects of equine influenza, including:
- History and Virology: The researchers look into the background and the virology of the disease, the genetical and morphological characteristics of the virus, and how it interacts and affects the host organism.
- Epidemiology and Pathogenesis: This involves studying the distribution, patterns, and determinants of equine influenza and the biological mechanisms that lead to the disease.
- Immunology and Clinical Presentation: The paper also explains how horses’ immune systems respond to the virus and the observable effects and symptoms of the disease in affected horses.
Diagnosis, Treatment, Control, and Prevention
- Effective diagnosis of the disease is crucial for early treatment. The article highlights updates in diagnostic methods to detect equine influenza. The treatment approaches are also examined, giving context to the measures taken to control and manage the disease.
- The study also focuses on preventive measures, including vaccination strategies. Importantly, it underscores new developments in vaccine technology, integral for enhancing vaccine efficacy in the light of the continual antigenic drift of the virus.
Cite This Article
APA
Wilson WD.
(1993).
Equine influenza.
Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract, 9(2), 257-282.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-0739(17)30395-4 Publication
Researcher Affiliations
- Department of Medicine, University of California, Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine.
MeSH Terms
- Animals
- Disease Outbreaks / veterinary
- Horse Diseases / epidemiology
- Horse Diseases / microbiology
- Horse Diseases / prevention & control
- Horses
- Influenza A virus / immunology
- Influenza A virus / isolation & purification
- Orthomyxoviridae Infections / epidemiology
- Orthomyxoviridae Infections / microbiology
- Orthomyxoviridae Infections / prevention & control
- Orthomyxoviridae Infections / veterinary
- Vaccination / veterinary
Citations
This article has been cited 17 times.- Carnet F, Paillot R, Fortier C, Hue ES, Briot L, de Geoffroy F, Vidalain PO, Pronost S. Immunostimulating Effect of Inactivated Parapoxvirus Ovis on the Serological Response to Equine Influenza Booster Vaccination. Vaccines (Basel) 2022 Dec 14;10(12).
- Whitlock F, Murcia PR, Newton JR. A Review on Equine Influenza from a Human Influenza Perspective. Viruses 2022 Jun 15;14(6).
- Barroso SPC, Vicente Dos Santos AC, Souza Dos Santos P, Dos Santos Silva Couceiro JN, Fernandes Ferreira D, Nico D, Morrot A, Lima Silva J, Cheble de Oliveira A. Inactivation of avian influenza viruses by hydrostatic pressure as a potential vaccine development approach. Access Microbiol 2021;3(4):000220.
- He W, Li G, Wang R, Shi W, Li K, Wang S, Lai A, Su S. Host-range shift of H3N8 canine influenza virus: a phylodynamic analysis of its origin and adaptation from equine to canine host. Vet Res 2019 Oct 30;50(1):87.
- Singh RK, Dhama K, Karthik K, Khandia R, Munjal A, Khurana SK, Chakraborty S, Malik YS, Virmani N, Singh R, Tripathi BN, Munir M, van der Kolk JH. A Comprehensive Review on Equine Influenza Virus: Etiology, Epidemiology, Pathobiology, Advances in Developing Diagnostics, Vaccines, and Control Strategies. Front Microbiol 2018;9:1941.
- Sreenivasan CC, Jandhyala SS, Luo S, Hause BM, Thomas M, Knudsen DEB, Leslie-Steen P, Clement T, Reedy SE, Chambers TM, Christopher-Hennings J, Nelson E, Wang D, Kaushik RS, Li F. Phylogenetic Analysis and Characterization of a Sporadic Isolate of Equine Influenza A H3N8 from an Unvaccinated Horse in 2015. Viruses 2018 Jan 11;10(1).
- Yamanaka T, Nemoto M, Bannai H, Tsujimura K, Matsumura T, Kokado H, Gildea S, Cullinane A. Neutralization antibody response to booster/priming immunization with new equine influenza vaccine in Japan. J Vet Med Sci 2018 Mar 2;80(2):382-386.
- Yamanaka T, Nemoto M, Bannai H, Tsujimura K, Kondo T, Matsumura T, Fu TQH, Fernandez CJ, Gildea S, Cullinane A. Rapid diagnosis of equine influenza by highly sensitive silver amplification immunochromatography system. J Vet Med Sci 2017 Jun 16;79(6):1061-1063.
- Meseko CA, Ehizibolo DO, Nwokike EC, Wungak YS. Serological evidence of equine influenza virus in horse stables in Kaduna, Nigeria. J Equine Sci 2016;27(3):99-105.
- Yamanaka T, Nemoto M, Bannai H, Tsujimura K, Kondo T, Matsumura T, Gildea S, Cullinane A. Evaluation of twenty-two rapid antigen detection tests in the diagnosis of Equine Influenza caused by viruses of H3N8 subtype. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2016 Mar;10(2):127-33.
- Paillot R. A Systematic Review of Recent Advances in Equine Influenza Vaccination. Vaccines (Basel) 2014 Nov 14;2(4):797-831.
- Lu Z, Chambers TM, Boliar S, Branscum AJ, Sturgill TL, Timoney PJ, Reedy SE, Tudor LR, Dubovi EJ, Vickers ML, Sells S, Balasuriya UB. Development and evaluation of one-step TaqMan real-time reverse transcription-PCR assays targeting nucleoprotein, matrix, and hemagglutinin genes of equine influenza virus. J Clin Microbiol 2009 Dec;47(12):3907-13.
- Patel JR, Heldens JG. Immunoprophylaxis against important virus disease of horses, farm animals and birds. Vaccine 2009 Mar 13;27(12):1797-1810.
- Hultén C, Sandgren B, Skiöldebrand E, Klingeborn B, Marhaug G, Forsberg M. The acute phase protein serum amyloid A (SAA) as an inflammatory marker in equine influenza virus infection. Acta Vet Scand 1999;40(4):323-33.
- Sutton GA, Viel L, Carman PS, Boag BL. Study of the duration and distribution of equine influenza virus subtype 2 (H3N8) antigens in experimentally infected ponies in vivo. Can J Vet Res 1997 Apr;61(2):113-20.
- Atwa AS, Gomaa L, Elmenofy W, Amer HM, Ahmed BM. Expression of recombinant Florida clade 2 hemagglutinin in baculovirus expression system: A step for subunit vaccine development against H3N8 equine influenza virus. Open Vet J 2024 Jan;14(1):350-359.
- Chambers TM. Equine Influenza. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2022 Jan 4;12(1).
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