FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
The Journal of experimental biology1999; 202(Pt 17); 2329-2338; doi: 10.1242/jeb.202.17.2329

The relationship between mechanical work and energy expenditure of locomotion in horses.

Abstract: Three-dimensional motion capture and metabolic assessment were performed on four standardbred horses while walking, trotting and galloping on a motorized treadmill at different speeds. The mechanical work was partitioned into the internal work (W(INT)), due to the speed changes of body segments with respect to the body centre of mass, and the external work (W(EXT)), due to the position and speed changes of the body centre of mass with respect to the environment. The estimated total mechanical work (W(TOT)=W(INT)+W(EXT)) increased with speed, while metabolic work (C) remained rather constant. As a consequence, the 'apparent efficiency' (eff(APP)=W(TOT)/C) increased from 10 % (walking) to over 100 % (galloping), setting the highest value to date for terrestrial locomotion. The contribution of elastic structures in the horse's limbs was evaluated by calculating the elastic energy stored and released during a single bounce (W(EL,BOUNCE)), which was approximately 1.23 J kg(-)(1) for trotting and up to 6 J kg(-)(1) for galloping. When taking into account the elastic energy stored by the spine bending and released as W(INT), as suggested in the literature for galloping, W(EL,BOUNCE) was reduced by 0.88 J kg(-)(1). Indirect evidence indicates that force, in addition to mechanical work, is also a determinant of the metabolic energy expenditure in horse locomotion.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 1999-08-10 PubMed ID: 10441084DOI: 10.1242/jeb.202.17.2329Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This study examines the correlation between mechanical and metabolic work in standardbred horses during various locomotion speeds. It is observed that while mechanical work increases with speed, metabolic work remains relatively constant, and the use of elastic structures in the horse’s limbs reduce energy expenditure.

Research Methodology

  • The study was undertaken on four standardbred horses exhibiting various movements such as walking, trotting, and galloping on a motorized treadmill at different speeds.
  • Three-dimensional motion capture and metabolic assessment tools were used to gather data.
  • The researchers calculated the mechanical work, which was separated into internal work from the alterations in speed of body parts with respect to the body center of mass, and external work from position and speed changes of the body center of mass with respect to the environment.

Research Findings

  • Results showed that the total mechanical work, which is the sum of internal and external work, increased with the speed of the horse.
  • At the same time, the metabolic work remained relatively constant regardless of the activity speed.
  • The ‘apparent efficiency’, calculated by dividing the total mechanical work by metabolic work, surged from 10% during walking to more than 100% during galloping. This value stands as the highest recorded for terrestrial locomotion.
  • The efficiency increase is attributed to the contribution of the elastic structures in the horse’s limbs which can reduce the amount of work that the muscles have to do.
  • The researchers also evaluated the amount of elastic energy stored and released during a single bounce, finding it to approx. 1.23 J kg−1 for trotting and up to 6 J kg−1 for galloping.

Conclusion and Implications

  • The research concludes with the observation that force plays a role in determining metabolic energy expenditure in horse locomotion, in addition to mechanical work.
  • The study’s findings provide further insight into the relationship between mechanical work and energy expenditure during different speeds of locomotion in horses, which could be relevant for training programs in horse racing and other related activities.

Cite This Article

APA
Minetti AE, ArdigO LP, Reinach E, Saibene F. (1999). The relationship between mechanical work and energy expenditure of locomotion in horses. J Exp Biol, 202(Pt 17), 2329-2338. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.202.17.2329

Publication

The Journal of experimental biology
ISSN: 0022-0949
NlmUniqueID: 0243705
Country: England
Language: English
Volume: 202
Issue: Pt 17
Pages: 2329-2338

Researcher Affiliations

Minetti, A E
  • Department of Physiology, Istituto Tecnologie Biomediche Avanzate, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Via Fratelli Cervi 93, Milano, Italy. a.e.minetti@mmu.ac.uk.
ArdigO, L P
    Reinach, E
      Saibene, F

        MeSH Terms

        • Animals
        • Biomechanical Phenomena
        • Energy Metabolism
        • Horses / anatomy & histology
        • Horses / physiology
        • Locomotion / physiology
        • Models, Biological
        • Running / physiology
        • Walking / physiology

        Citations

        This article has been cited 55 times.
        1. Daniels KAJ, Burn JF. Human locomotion over obstacles reveals real-time prediction of energy expenditure for optimized decision-making. Proc Biol Sci 2023 Jun 14;290(2000):20230200.
          doi: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0200pubmed: 37312546google scholar: lookup
        2. Young MW, Virga JQ, Kantounis SJ, Lynch SK, Chernik ND, Gustafson JA, Cannata MJ, Flaim ND, Granatosky MC. How Pendular Is Human Brachiation? When Form Does Not Follow Function. Animals (Basel) 2023 Apr 22;13(9).
          doi: 10.3390/ani13091438pubmed: 37174475google scholar: lookup
        3. Pequera G, Yelós V, Biancardi CM. Reducing cost of transport in asymmetrical gaits: lessons from unilateral skipping. Eur J Appl Physiol 2023 Mar;123(3):623-631.
          doi: 10.1007/s00421-022-05088-xpubmed: 36374309google scholar: lookup
        4. Rhodin M, Smit IH, Persson-Sjodin E, Pfau T, Gunnarsson V, Björnsdóttir S, Zetterberg E, Clayton HM, Hobbs SJ, Serra Bragança F, Hernlund E. Timing of Vertical Head, Withers and Pelvis Movements Relative to the Footfalls in Different Equine Gaits and Breeds. Animals (Basel) 2022 Nov 7;12(21).
          doi: 10.3390/ani12213053pubmed: 36359178google scholar: lookup
        5. Hobbs SJ, Clayton HM. The Olympic motto through the lens of equestrian sports. Anim Front 2022 Jun;12(3):45-53.
          doi: 10.1093/af/vfac025pubmed: 35711501google scholar: lookup
        6. Ding J, Moore TY, Gan Z. A Template Model Explains Jerboa Gait Transitions Across a Broad Range of Speeds. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022;10:804826.
          doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.804826pubmed: 35600899google scholar: lookup
        7. Minetti AE, Ruggiero L. Inertial biometry from commercial 3D body meshes. Biol Open 2022 Mar 15;11(3).
          doi: 10.1242/bio.058927pubmed: 35343571google scholar: lookup
        8. Yamada T, Aoi S, Adachi M, Kamimura T, Higurashi Y, Wada N, Tsuchiya K, Matsuno F. Center of Mass Offset Enhances the Selection of Transverse Gallop in High-Speed Running by Horses: A Modeling Study. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022;10:825157.
          doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.825157pubmed: 35295643google scholar: lookup
        9. Pequera G, Ramírez Paulino I, Biancardi CM. Common motor patterns of asymmetrical and symmetrical bipedal gaits. PeerJ 2021;9:e11970.
          doi: 10.7717/peerj.11970pubmed: 34458023google scholar: lookup
        10. Kamimura T, Aoi S, Higurashi Y, Wada N, Tsuchiya K, Matsuno F. Dynamical determinants enabling two different types of flight in cheetah gallop to enhance speed through spine movement. Sci Rep 2021 May 5;11(1):9631.
          doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-88879-0pubmed: 33953253google scholar: lookup
        11. Godinho MS, Thorpe CT, Greenwald SE, Screen HRC. Elastase treatment of tendon specifically impacts the mechanical properties of the interfascicular matrix. Acta Biomater 2021 Mar 15;123:187-196.
          doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.01.030pubmed: 33508509google scholar: lookup
        12. Silva V, Biancardi C, Perafán C, Ortíz D, Fábrica G, Pérez-Miles F. Giant steps: adhesion and locomotion in theraphosid tarantulas. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2021 Mar;207(2):179-190.
          doi: 10.1007/s00359-020-01456-0pubmed: 33386944google scholar: lookup
        13. Ebert M, Moore-Colyer MJS. The energy requirements of racehorses in training. Transl Anim Sci 2020 Oct;4(4):txaa196.
          doi: 10.1093/tas/txaa196pubmed: 33367221google scholar: lookup
        14. Ardigò LP, Stöggl TL, Thomassen TO, Winther AK, Sagelv EH, Pedersen S, Hammer TM, Heitmann KA, Olsen OE, Welde B. Ski Skating Race Technique-Effect of Long Distance Cross-Country Ski Racing on Choice of Skating Technique in Moderate Uphill Terrain. Front Sports Act Living 2020;2:89.
          doi: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00089pubmed: 33345080google scholar: lookup
        15. Li G, Zhang R, Han D, Pang H, Yu G, Cao Q, Wang C, Kong L, Chengjin W, Dong W, Li T, Li J. Forelimb joints contribute to locomotor performance in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) by maintaining stability and storing energy. PeerJ 2020;8:e10278.
          doi: 10.7717/peerj.10278pubmed: 33240627google scholar: lookup
        16. Ebert M, Moore-Colyer MJS. The energy requirements of performance horses in training. Transl Anim Sci 2020 Apr;4(2):txaa032.
          doi: 10.1093/tas/txaa032pubmed: 32705030google scholar: lookup
        17. Druelle F, Goyens J, Vasilopoulou-Kampitsi M, Aerts P. Small vertebrates running on uneven terrain: a biomechanical study of two differently specialised lacertid lizards. Sci Rep 2019 Nov 14;9(1):16858.
          doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-53329-5pubmed: 31727966google scholar: lookup
        18. Clayton HM, Hobbs SJ. A Review of Biomechanical Gait Classification with Reference to Collected Trot, Passage and Piaffe in Dressage Horses. Animals (Basel) 2019 Oct 3;9(10).
          doi: 10.3390/ani9100763pubmed: 31623360google scholar: lookup
        19. Hobbs SJ, Clayton HM. Collisional mechanics of the diagonal gaits of horses over a range of speeds. PeerJ 2019;7:e7689.
          doi: 10.7717/peerj.7689pubmed: 31576241google scholar: lookup
        20. Granatosky MC, Bryce CM, Hanna J, Fitzsimons A, Laird MF, Stilson K, Wall CE, Ross CF. Inter-stride variability triggers gait transitions in mammals and birds. Proc Biol Sci 2018 Dec 19;285(1893):20181766.
          doi: 10.1098/rspb.2018.1766pubmed: 30963900google scholar: lookup
        21. Self Davies ZT, Spence AJ, Wilson AM. External mechanical work in the galloping racehorse. Biol Lett 2019 Feb 28;15(2):20180709.
          doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2018.0709pubmed: 30958128google scholar: lookup
        22. Peyré-Tartaruga LA, Coertjens M. Locomotion as a Powerful Model to Study Integrative Physiology: Efficiency, Economy, and Power Relationship. Front Physiol 2018;9:1789.
          doi: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01789pubmed: 30618802google scholar: lookup
        23. Gan Z, Yesilevskiy Y, Zaytsev P, Remy CD. All common bipedal gaits emerge from a single passive model. J R Soc Interface 2018 Sep 26;15(146).
          doi: 10.1098/rsif.2018.0455pubmed: 30257925google scholar: lookup
        24. Sellers WI, Hirasaki E. Quadrupedal locomotor simulation: producing more realistic gaits using dual-objective optimization. R Soc Open Sci 2018 Mar;5(3):171836.
          doi: 10.1098/rsos.171836pubmed: 29657790google scholar: lookup
        25. Weihmann T, Brun PG, Pycroft E. Speed dependent phase shifts and gait changes in cockroaches running on substrates of different slipperiness. Front Zool 2017;14:54.
          doi: 10.1186/s12983-017-0232-ypubmed: 29225659google scholar: lookup
        26. Pavei G, Seminati E, Cazzola D, Minetti AE. On the Estimation Accuracy of the 3D Body Center of Mass Trajectory during Human Locomotion: Inverse vs. Forward Dynamics. Front Physiol 2017;8:129.
          doi: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00129pubmed: 28337148google scholar: lookup
        27. Sainas G, Melis S, Corona F, Loi A, Ghiani G, Milia R, Tocco F, Marongiu E, Crisafulli A. Cardio-metabolic responses during horse riding at three different speeds. Eur J Appl Physiol 2016 Oct;116(10):1985-92.
          doi: 10.1007/s00421-016-3450-7pubmed: 27485468google scholar: lookup
        28. Wei X, Long Y, Wang C, Wang S. A Critical Characteristic in the Transverse Galloping Pattern. Appl Bionics Biomech 2015;2015:631354.
          doi: 10.1155/2015/631354pubmed: 27087773google scholar: lookup
        29. Wang C, Wang S. Bionic Control of Cheetah Bounding with a Segmented Spine. Appl Bionics Biomech 2016;2016:5031586.
          doi: 10.1155/2016/5031586pubmed: 27065749google scholar: lookup
        30. Youngstrom DW, Barrett JG. Engineering Tendon: Scaffolds, Bioreactors, and Models of Regeneration. Stem Cells Int 2016;2016:3919030.
          doi: 10.1155/2016/3919030pubmed: 26839559google scholar: lookup
        31. Roberts TJ. Contribution of elastic tissues to the mechanics and energetics of muscle function during movement. J Exp Biol 2016 Jan;219(Pt 2):266-75.
          doi: 10.1242/jeb.124446pubmed: 26792339google scholar: lookup
        32. Rose KA, Nudds RL, Codd JR. Intraspecific scaling of the minimum metabolic cost of transport in leghorn chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus): links with limb kinematics, morphometrics and posture. J Exp Biol 2015 Apr;218(Pt 7):1028-34.
          doi: 10.1242/jeb.111393pubmed: 25657211google scholar: lookup
        33. Holt NC, Roberts TJ, Askew GN. The energetic benefits of tendon springs in running: is the reduction of muscle work important?. J Exp Biol 2014 Dec 15;217(Pt 24):4365-71.
          doi: 10.1242/jeb.112813pubmed: 25394624google scholar: lookup
        34. McCoy AM, Schaefer R, Petersen JL, Morrell PL, Slamka MA, Mickelson JR, Valberg SJ, McCue ME. Evidence of positive selection for a glycogen synthase (GYS1) mutation in domestic horse populations. J Hered 2014 Mar-Apr;105(2):163-72.
          doi: 10.1093/jhered/est075pubmed: 24215078google scholar: lookup
        35. Lee DV, Comanescu TN, Butcher MT, Bertram JE. A comparative collision-based analysis of human gait. Proc Biol Sci 2013 Nov 22;280(1771):20131779.
          doi: 10.1098/rspb.2013.1779pubmed: 24089334google scholar: lookup
        36. Viry S, Sleimen-Malkoun R, Temprado JJ, Frances JP, Berton E, Laurent M, Nicol C. Patterns of horse-rider coordination during endurance race: a dynamical system approach. PLoS One 2013;8(8):e71804.
          doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0071804pubmed: 23940788google scholar: lookup
        37. Self ZT, Spence AJ, Wilson AM. Speed and incline during thoroughbred horse racing: racehorse speed supports a metabolic power constraint to incline running but not to decline running. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2012 Aug 15;113(4):602-7.
          doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00560.2011pubmed: 22678967google scholar: lookup
        38. Ogihara N, Makishima H, Hirasaki E, Nakatsukasa M. Inefficient use of inverted pendulum mechanism during quadrupedal walking in the Japanese macaque. Primates 2012 Jan;53(1):41-8.
          doi: 10.1007/s10329-011-0265-3pubmed: 21874286google scholar: lookup
        39. Hanna JB, Schmitt D. Locomotor energetics in primates: gait mechanics and their relationship to the energetics of vertical and horizontal locomotion. Am J Phys Anthropol 2011 May;145(1):43-54.
          doi: 10.1002/ajpa.21465pubmed: 21484760google scholar: lookup
        40. Lee DV, Bertram JE, Anttonen JT, Ros IG, Harris SL, Biewener AA. A collisional perspective on quadrupedal gait dynamics. J R Soc Interface 2011 Oct 7;8(63):1480-6.
          doi: 10.1098/rsif.2011.0019pubmed: 21471189google scholar: lookup
        41. Nauwelaerts S, Allen WA, Lane JM, Clayton HM. Inertial properties of equine limb segments. J Anat 2011 May;218(5):500-9.
          doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2011.01353.xpubmed: 21355866google scholar: lookup
        42. Tan H, Wilson AM. Grip and limb force limits to turning performance in competition horses. Proc Biol Sci 2011 Jul 22;278(1715):2105-11.
          doi: 10.1098/rspb.2010.2395pubmed: 21147799google scholar: lookup
        43. Nudds RL, Codd JR, Sellers WI. Evidence for a mass dependent step-change in the scaling of efficiency in terrestrial locomotion. PLoS One 2009 Sep 7;4(9):e6927.
          doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0006927pubmed: 19738898google scholar: lookup
        44. Bertram JE, Gutmann A. Motions of the running horse and cheetah revisited: fundamental mechanics of the transverse and rotary gallop. J R Soc Interface 2009 Jun 6;6(35):549-59.
          doi: 10.1098/rsif.2008.0328pubmed: 18854295google scholar: lookup
        45. Starke SD, Robilliard JJ, Weller R, Wilson AM, Pfau T. Walk-run classification of symmetrical gaits in the horse: a multidimensional approach. J R Soc Interface 2009 Apr 6;6(33):335-42.
          doi: 10.1098/rsif.2008.0238pubmed: 18664427google scholar: lookup
        46. Clegg PD, Strassburg S, Smith RK. Cell phenotypic variation in normal and damaged tendons. Int J Exp Pathol 2007 Aug;88(4):227-35.
          doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2613.2007.00549.xpubmed: 17696903google scholar: lookup
        47. Smith NC, Wilson AM, Jespers KJ, Payne RC. Muscle architecture and functional anatomy of the pelvic limb of the ostrich (Struthio camelus). J Anat 2006 Dec;209(6):765-79.
          doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00658.xpubmed: 17118064google scholar: lookup
        48. Geyer H, Seyfarth A, Blickhan R. Compliant leg behaviour explains basic dynamics of walking and running. Proc Biol Sci 2006 Nov 22;273(1603):2861-7.
          doi: 10.1098/rspb.2006.3637pubmed: 17015312google scholar: lookup
        49. Reilly SM, McElroy EJ, Andrew Odum R, Hornyak VA. Tuataras and salamanders show that walking and running mechanics are ancient features of tetrapod locomotion. Proc Biol Sci 2006 Jun 22;273(1593):1563-8.
          doi: 10.1098/rspb.2006.3489pubmed: 16777753google scholar: lookup
        50. Smith RK, Webbon PM. Harnessing the stem cell for the treatment of tendon injuries: heralding a new dawn?. Br J Sports Med 2005 Sep;39(9):582-4.
          doi: 10.1136/bjsm.2005.015834pubmed: 16118291google scholar: lookup
        51. Rubenson J, Heliams DB, Lloyd DG, Fournier PA. Gait selection in the ostrich: mechanical and metabolic characteristics of walking and running with and without an aerial phase. Proc Biol Sci 2004 May 22;271(1543):1091-9.
          doi: 10.1098/rspb.2004.2702pubmed: 15293864google scholar: lookup
        52. van den Bogert AJ. Exotendons for assistance of human locomotion. Biomed Eng Online 2003 Oct 14;2:17.
          doi: 10.1186/1475-925X-2-17pubmed: 14613503google scholar: lookup
        53. Rhodin M, Serra Bragança FM, Persson-Sjodin E, Björnsdóttir S, Gunnarsdottir H, Gunnarsson V, Hernlund E, Smit IH. Adaptation strategies of Icelandic horses with induced transient hindlimb lameness at walk, trot and tölt. Equine Vet J 2026 Jan;58(1):230-242.
          doi: 10.1111/evj.14525pubmed: 40371819google scholar: lookup
        54. van Bijlert PA, Geijtenbeek T, Smit IH, Schulp AS, Bates KT. Muscle-Driven Predictive Physics Simulations of Quadrupedal Locomotion in the Horse. Integr Comp Biol 2024 Sep 27;64(3):694-714.
          doi: 10.1093/icb/icae095pubmed: 39003243google scholar: lookup
        55. Takahashi Y, Takahashi T, Mukai K, Ebisuda Y, Ohmura H. Changes in muscle activation with graded surfaces during canter in Thoroughbred horses on a treadmill. PLoS One 2024;19(6):e0305622.
          doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0305622pubmed: 38875264google scholar: lookup
        Subscribe to our newsletter
        Join 99,727 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.