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Topic:Anatomy
Anatomy in horses encompasses the study of the structural organization of the equine body, including the bones, muscles, organs, and systems that function together to sustain life and enable movement. Understanding equine anatomy is important for veterinarians, equine scientists, and horse owners, as it provides insights into how horses move, how they respond to external stimuli, and how various conditions can affect their health and performance. Key anatomical features in horses include the musculoskeletal system, which provides support and locomotion; the cardiovascular system, which circulates blood and nutrients; and the respiratory system, which facilitates gas exchange. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the detailed anatomy of horses, focusing on the structure and function of different body systems, their interrelationships, and their relevance to equine health, performance, and veterinary care.
Treatment of a second carpal bone fracture by removal under ultrasonographic guidance in a horse. To report an unusual 2nd carpal bone (C2) slab fracture and its treatment, using an ultrasonographically assisted, minimally invasive arthrotomy technique, for fragment removal. Methods: Case report. Methods: An 11-year-old crossbred Warmblood gelding. Methods: A bone fragment, spanning the height of C2, identified on the palmaromedial aspect of C2 was demarcated intraoperatively using ultrasonographically guided needles and removed by arthrotomy. Results: Fracture fragment removal was achieved using a small, ultrasonographically guided arthrotomy. The horse has become sound after treatment an...
Measurement of articular cartilage stiffness of the femoropatellar, tarsocrural, and metatarsophalangeal joints in horses and comparison with biochemical data. To determine normal cartilage stiffness values in different weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing areas of 3 different equine joints, and to evaluate the relationship between cartilage stiffness and glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and collagen content. Methods: Compressive stiffness of the articular cartilage was measured in 8 horse cadaver femoropatellar (FP), tarsocrural (TC), and metatarsophalangeal (MT) joints. Gross evaluation, collagen content, GAG content, and histologic appearance were assessed for each measurement location. Methods: Eight equine cadavers (4 intact females, 4 castrated males; ...
Validation of magnetic resonance imaging for measurement of equine articular cartilage and subchondral bone thickness. To validate use of magnetic resonance images (MRIs) for measurement of equine articular cartilage and subchondral bone thickness by comparison with measurements in histologic specimens. Methods: 32 cadaveric carpal joints from 16 horses. Methods: Magnetic resonance imaging was performed by use of 3-dimensional fast spoiled gradient echo (SPGR) and T2* 3-dimensional fast gradient echo (GRE) pulse sequences with and without fat saturation. Standard sites on the medial and lateral facets of the intermediate, radial, and third carpal bones were used for subchondral bone and articular cartilage thi...
Spatial distribution of osteocyte lacunae in equine radii and third metacarpals: considerations for cellular communication, microdamage detection and metabolism. Osteocytes, which are embedded in bone matrix, are the most abundant cells in bone. Despite the ideal location of osteocytes to sense the local environment and influence bone remodeling, their functions, and the relative importance of these functions, remain controversial. In this study, we tested several hypotheses that address the possibilities that population densities of osteocyte lacunae (Ot.Lc.N/B.Ar) correlate with strain-, remodeling- or metabolism-related aspects of the local biomechanical environments of mid-third diaphyseal equine radii and third metacarpals from skeletally mature a...
Distribution of eosinophils and mast cells in the cervical tissue of non-gravid mares during dioestrus. Little is known about the local cellular immune system of the equine cervix. In this study we characterize the distribution of eosinophilic granulocytes and mast cells in the cervical tissue of non-gravid mares during dioestrus. For this purpose cervices of 10 mares were histologically examined after Sirius red and Toluidine blue staining. Both cell types could be found in the lamina propria mucosae. In the tunica muscularis the two cell populations were only rarely detected. No cells could be found in the epithelium mucosae. There was a decreasing cell density from the vaginal to uterine side...
Mesenteric arterionecrosis in natural and experimental equine endotoxaemia. To test the hypothesis that mesenteric arterionecrosis (MA) occurs in horses with naturally occurring endotoxaemia (ET) and in those with experimentally induced ET, the mesentery and gastrointestinal tract of 21 Thoroughbred racehorses (15 with spontaneous colic suspected to be due to ET, and six with experimentally induced ET) were examined. MA, which occurred in 13 of the 15 horses with spontaneous colic and in all six of the cases of experimental ET, was morphologically similar in the two groups of animals. This suggested that the pathogenesis of the MA was fundamentally similar in the two ...
[Anatomy of the splint bones and their surrounding area particularly in consideration of fascial attachments]. This study concerns the vestigial metacarpal and metatarsal bones, so called splint bones. The soft tissues, which stabilize the splint bones were carefully examined. The palmar metacarpal/plantar metatarsal fascia, the metacarpal/metatarsal interosseous ligaments and the fibres, which exit distally from the splint bone, were examined in depth. Cadaveric distal limbs were collected from 5 slaughtered or euthanized horses. The legs were examined both, microscopically and macroscopically. The palmar metacarpal/plantar metatarsal fascia is a very stable structure, which connects the splint bone w...
Role of transcranial magnetic stimulation in differentiating motor nervous tract disorders from other causes of recumbency in four horses and one donkey. Transcranial magnetic stimulation and measurement of the magnetic motor-evoked potentials (MMEPs) in the thoracic and pelvic limbs of four recumbent horses and one recumbent donkey were used to assess the integrity of the descending motor pathways, in order to confirm or exclude a descending motor tract lesion as the cause of the recumbency. In two of the animals abnormal MMEPs were recorded; in one of the horses a lesion along the cervical spinal cord due to a fracture of the fifth cervical vertebra was diagnosed and confirmed by radiography and postmortem examination; in another horse, damag...
Diagnosis and treatment of ligamentous and meniscal injuries in the equine stifle. The accuracy of the diagnosis of ligamentous and meniscal injuries in the equine stifle has improved significantly in the last 20 years. There are, however, significant limitations in the diagnosis of stifle injuries because of the size and anatomy of the equine stifle. Treatment of soft tissue injuries to the equine stifle has been empirical,with only a few large case studies for specific conditions of stifle ligaments and menisci and only retrospective case studies of the outcome of treatment. This article describes the diagnosis and treatment of ligamentous and meniscal injuries in the equi...
Radiographic anatomy of the soft tissue attachments of the equine stifle. Radiography is a very important aspect of equine stifle imaging. The precise radiographic anatomy of the soft tissue structures of the equine stifle has not been described previously. Objective: To describe the anatomical relationship between sites of attachment of soft tissue structures of the equine stifle and their locations on standard radiographic views. Methods: The sites of bony attachments of the tendons, ligaments and fibrous portion of the joint capsules of equine stifles were determined by gross dissection. These sites of attachment were transposed onto one set of bones deprived of ...
Cross-sectional anatomy and comparative ultrasonography of the equine medial femorotibial joint and its related structures. Injuries of the equine stifle are frequent causes of hindlimb lameness. Ultrasonography is useful for the diagnosis of many soft tissue lesions but, until recently, its application to the equine stifle has been limited to a description of normal and abnormal structures. A comparative study using gross anatomical sections to identify all structures visible on ultrasonographic images of the equine stifle has not previously been reported. Objective: To provide a comprehensive comparative cross-sectional atlas of the normal equine medial femorotibial (MFT) joint and its related structures using ul...
Scanning electron microscopy of the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricle of the horse. The present study examined the ultrastructure of the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricle of the horse. The material was fixed in 2.5% glutaraldehyde in 0.1 m sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.3, processed and analysed by scanning electron microscopy. The choroid plexus was characterized by regions with a predominance of villi, which resembled finger-like projections or bunches of grapes, and others where straight and uniform folds predominated. Epithelial cells projected into the ventricle and large amounts of cilia and microvilli were observed on their surface. The choroid glomus corresponded...
Assessment of scintigraphic and thermographic changes after focused extracorporeal shock wave therapy on the origin of the suspensory ligament and the fourth metatarsal bone in horses without lameness. To monitor the effect of focused extra-corporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT) on bone and bone-tendon junction of horses without lameness by use of nuclear scintigraphy and thermography. Methods: 6 warmblood horses without lameness. Methods: The origin of the suspensory ligament at the metacarpus (OSL-MC) and the fourth metatarsal bone were treated at 2 time points (days 0 and 16) with 2,000 shocks applied by a focused ESWT device at an energy flux density of 0.15 mJ/mm2. One forelimb and 1 hind limb were treated, and the contralateral limbs served as controls. To document the effect of focused E...
Evaluation of subchondral bone mineral density associated with articular cartilage structure and integrity in healthy equine joints with different functional demands. To determine and correlate subchondral bone mineral density and overlying cartilage structure and tensile integrity in mature healthy equine stifle (low magnitude loading) and metacarpophalangeal (high magnitude loading) joints. Methods: 8 healthy horses, 2 to 3 years of age. Methods: Osteochondral samples were acquired from the medial femoral condyle (FC) and medial trochlear ridge (TR) of the stifle joint and from the dorsal (MC3D) and palmar (MC3P) aspects of the distal medial third metacarpal condyles of the metacarpophalangeal joint. Articular cartilage surface fibrillation (evaluated via...
Registration of confocal scanning laser microscopy and quantitative backscattered electron images for the temporospatial quantification of mineralization density in 18-month old thoroughbred racehorse articular calcified cartilage. Combined backscattered electron scanning electron microscopy (BSE SEM) and confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM) have been used to put tissue mineralization data into the context of soft tissue histology and fluorescent label information. Mineralization density (Dm) and linear accretion rate (LAR) are quantifiable parameters associated with mineralizing fronts within calcified tissues. Quantitative BSE (qBSE) may be used to determine Dm, while CSLM may be used to detect label fluorescence from which LAR is calculated. Eighteen-month old Thoroughbred horses received single calcein injection...
Determining effective centroid position in biomechanical testing: a technique for simplifying whole bone analysis. Whole bone in vitro biomechanical compressive testing can be complicated by three factors: sample asymmetry, heterogeneous material properties, and unknown effective centroid location. Methods: The technique presented here facilitates the calculation of effective centroid position, modulus of elasticity and equivalent uniform strain magnitude for a cross section of bone from a simple whole bone compressive test. Simplification of section response to load is achieved through a combination of linear beam and simple planer geometry theory. The technique requires three longitudinal strain gauges b...
[Digital semiological anesthesia in horses: technique and elements of interpretation]. Digital semiological anesthesia in horses: Technique and elements of interpretation. Semiological anesthesia of the pes is used during examinations for lameness in horses. Recent research data on the distal digital, distal interphalangeal articular, and podotrochlear intrathecal nerve blocks indicate that they are less than specific when considered in isolation. They should be used in combination to localize pain in the pes. A positive response to anesthesia of the distal interphalangeal articulation could also indicate that the source of the pain was in the podotrochlear apparatus or the dors...
Radiographic diagnosis: foreign body in the distal interphalangeal joint. No abstract available
An early endometrial vascular indicator of completed orientation of the embryo and the role of dorsal endometrial encroachment in mares. The spherical equine embryonic vesicle is mobile throughout the uterine lumen for several days before becoming fixed in the caudal segment of a uterine horn on Day 16 (ovulation = Day 0). Orientation refers to the position of the embryo proper at the periphery of the vesicle relative to the position of the mesometrial attachment. In mares, the embryonic pole of the vesicle is antimesometrial after completion of orientation. Day of vesicle fixation, differential thickening of the endometrium near the mesometrial attachment, and orientation of the embryonic vesicle were studied in 30 ponies, usi...
Magnetic resonance imaging findings in the equine deep digital flexor tendon and distal sesamoid bone in advanced navicular disease–an ex vivo study. We describe the abnormal magnetic resonance (MR) imaging findings in the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) and distal sesamoid bone in horses with radiographic changes compatible with navicular syndrome. Thirteen postmortem specimens were examined using a 1.5-T magnetic field, with spin echo (SE) T1-weighted, turbo SE (TSE) proton density-weighted (with and without fat saturation), and fat saturation TSE T2-weighted sequences. The limbs were then dissected to compare the MR findings with the gross assessment and histologic examination of the DDFT and distal sesamoid bones. Tendonous abnormalit...
Laser fenestration of the mesial septum for treatment of guttural pouch chondroids in a pony. To describe removal of guttural pouch chondroids through a laser fenestrated mesial septum in a pony with an obstructed pharyngeal ostium of the left guttural pouch. Methods: Case report. Methods: Pony. Methods: Transendoscopic laser neodymium:yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) fenestration of the mesial guttural pouch septum was made by contact method (bare fiber, 15-25 W, exposure time 4 seconds). Dissected tissue was removed by transendoscopic monopolar electrosurgery (loop electrode, cutting blade) and multiple chondroids of varying size were removed from the left guttural pouch through the ...
Control of the collagen fibril diameter in the equine superficial digital flexor tendon in horses by decorin. The distribution pattern of collagen fibril diameter in the equine superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) is known to differ in central and peripheral areas of some regions. This study reports the essence of collagen fibril differences among different regions of the equine SDFT by transmission electron microscopic (TEM) and high-voltage electron microscopic observations and biochemical analysis. The distribution of large collagen fibrils increased but the density of collagen fibrils decreased from the proximal metacarpal region to the distal metacarpal region. Large collagen fibrils with an ...
Regional and zonal variations in the sulfation patterns of chondroitin sulfate in normal equine corneal stroma. To determine regional and zonal variation in sulfation patterns of chondroitin sulfate in normal equine corneal stroma. Methods: 22 normal eyes from 11 horses. Methods: Corneas were collected within 24 hours of death from equine necropsy specimens. After papain-chondroitinase digestion of corneal tissue, disaccharides deltaDi4S and deltaDi6S were quantified by use of capillary zone electrophoresis in the superficial, middle, and deep zones of central and peripheral regions of the cornea. Results: For the 2 regions combined, deltaDi6S/deltaDi4S values were significantly lower in the deep and mi...
Prevalence of osseous fragments in distal and proximal interphalangeal, metacarpo- and metatarsophalangeal and tarsocrural joints of Hanoverian Warmblood horses. The prevalence of osseous fragments in different limb joints was analysed in 3749 young Warmblood riding horses, which were pre-selected for sale at auction from 1991 to 1998 by the Association of Hanoverian Warmblood Breeders (Verband hannoverscher Warmblutzüchter e.V.) in Verden (Aller), Germany. The evaluation of these horses was based on a standardized radiological examination, including the distal interphalangeal (DIJ), the proximal interphalangeal (PIJ), the metacarpo- and metatarsophalangeal (MC/MTJ) and the tarsocrural joints (TCJ). In 32% of all horses at least one osseous fragment w...
