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Topic:Diagnostic Imaging
Diagnostic imaging in horses encompasses a range of techniques used to visualize the internal structures of the equine body for the purpose of diagnosis and treatment planning. These techniques include radiography, ultrasonography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), and nuclear scintigraphy. Each modality offers unique advantages in assessing different tissues and conditions, such as bone fractures, soft tissue injuries, and joint abnormalities. Radiography is commonly employed for evaluating bone structures, while ultrasonography is frequently used for soft tissue assessment. MRI and CT provide detailed cross-sectional images, facilitating the examination of complex anatomical regions. Nuclear scintigraphy can detect areas of increased bone activity, often used in lameness evaluations. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the applications, advancements, and comparative effectiveness of diagnostic imaging modalities in equine veterinary practice.
Evaluation of clinical characteristics, diagnostic test results, and outcome in horses with internal infection caused by Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis: 30 cases (1995-2003). To determine clinical signs, results of diagnostic testing, and outcome in horses with internal Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis infection. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: 30 horses. Methods: Information pertaining to clinical data, results of diagnostic tests, and costs of hospitalization and treatment was extracted from medical records of affected horses. Results: Internal C. pseudotuberculosis infection was diagnosed on the basis of clinical signs, diagnostic imaging, and clinicopathologic data, including results of serologic tests and bacterial culture. The most common clinical si...
Influence of age, site, and degenerative state on the speed of sound in equine articular cartilage. To determine the speed of sound (SOS) in equine articular cartilage and investigate the influence of age, site in the joint, and cartilage degeneration on the SOS. Methods: Cartilage samples from 38 metacarpophalangeal joints of 38 horses (age range, 5 months to 22 years). Methods: Osteochondral plugs were collected from 2 articular sites of the proximal phalanx after the degenerative state was characterized by use of the cartilage degeneration index (CDI) technique. The SOS was calculated (ratio of needle-probe cartilage thickness to time of flight of the ultrasound pulse), and relationships ...
Comparison of intraosseous and intravenous infusion of technetium Tc 99m pertechnate in the distal portion of forelimbs in standing horses by use of scintigraphic imaging. To describe and compare the distribution of technetium Tc 99m (99mTc) pertechnate following intraosseous or i.v. injection (with or without use of a tourniquet) in the distal portion of the forelimb in standing horses. Methods: 4 horses. Methods: Each horse received 4 forelimb treatments in random sequence: intraosseous infusion with tourniquet application (IOT), intraosseous infusion without tourniquet application, i.v infusion with tourniquet application (IVT), and i.v. infusion without tourniquet application. Dynamic nuclear scintigraphic imaging of the third metacarpal bone, proximal and m...
Carpal collateral ligament desmopathy in three horses. The radiographic and ultrasonographic findings in three horses with severe damage to the collateral ligaments of the carpus, associated with degenerative joint disease, are described. The horses remained lame despite prolonged rest and medical management, primarily because of the progression of the joint disease. Ultrasonography was found to be an accurate method for diagnosing the injury to the ligaments and is recommended as part of a routine examination in suspected carpal injuries.
Equine neonatal thoracic and abdominal ultrasonography. Pathologic disorders of the equine neonate often develop shortly after foaling as a result of prematurity, dystocia, trauma, or septicemia. Recognition of these disorders requires routine patient assessment along with diagnostic aids, including abdominal and thoracic ultrasonography. Fortunately, modern technology affords today's equine practitioners the opportunity to use ultrasonography to advance their practice, and it is the authors' hope that this article might help in those efforts.
Evaluation of a rebound tonometer for measuring intraocular pressure in dogs and horses. To compare intraocular pressure (IOP) measurements obtained with a rebound tonometer in dogs and horses with values obtained by means of applanation tonometry and direct manometry. Methods: Prospective study. Methods: 100 dogs and 35 horses with clinically normal eyes, 10 enucleated eyes from 5 dogs, and 6 enucleated eyes from 3 horses. Methods: In the enucleated eyes, IOP measured by means of direct manometry was sequentially increased from 5 to 80 mm Hg, and IOP was measured with the rebound tonometer. In the dogs and horses, results of rebound tonometry were compared with results of applana...
The robustness of faecal steroid determination for pregnancy testing Kaimanawa feral mares under field conditions. To investigate the utility of faecal oestrone sulphate (OS) concentrations for detecting pregnancy in mares during behavioural studies of feral horses, in which the collection and preservation of samples is not immediate. Methods: Oestrone sulphate concentrations were measured in fresh dung samples collected from 153 free-roaming Kaimanawa mares throughout the year. In addition, multiple samples were taken from the same pile to investigate the reliability of diagnosis from a single sample, as well as the influence of time until preservation on OS concentrations. Samples were also taken before ...
Equine fetal gender determination from mid- to advanced-gestation by ultrasound. Equine fetal gender can be easily determined by ultrasound between Days 120 and 210. A combination of transrectal and transabdominal ultrasound examinations can visualise fetal sex organs up to 8 months of gestation. Early equine fetal sexing techniques, performed between approximately Days 58 and 70, are aimed at identifying the position of the genital tubercle. A wider diagnostic window, a diagnosis based on several parameters, and the ease of identification of fully developed fetal primary sex organs make gender diagnosis in mid- to advanced-gestation a preferable technique.
Assessment of feto-placental well-being in the mare from mid-gestation to term: transrectal and transabdominal ultrasonographic features. Ultrasound assessment of feto-placental well-being has found its application in the equine field, as a valid diagnostic tool. Most reports on equine fetal parameters focus on advanced to late gestation. The aim of the present study was to further validate the technique of ultrasound evaluation of the equine fetal environment, by extending its application to earlier stages of pregnancy. Fetal parameters were collected (on 150 pregnancies) over a 3-year period. Data included in the study were selected according to the clinical behaviour of the mare, the neonate/fetus and fetal membranes at the t...
Diagnostic applications of ultrasonography to stallion’s reproductive tract. Although ultrasound evaluation of the reproductive tract of stallions was introduced to veterinary practice long ago, this examination is not always conducted during routine breeding soundness evaluation. The objective of this study was to investigate the clinical relevance of routine ultrasound evaluation of the stallion's reproductive tract. Breeding soundness evaluation of 113 stallions was performed, including ultrasonography of external and internal genitalia. Various pathological conditions were detected using this technique, with the most frequent being varicocele, thickened vaginal tun...
Digital blood flow and plasma endothelin concentration in clinically endotoxemic horses. To measure plasma endothelin-1 (ET-1) concentrations and digital blood flow in clinically endotoxemic horses. Methods: 36 adult horses that underwent emergency celiotomy for primary gastrointestinal tract disease. Methods: On days 2 and 5 following surgery, Doppler ultrasonographic digital arterial blood flow measurements were obtained. Hematologic and biochemical analyses were performed, and plasma concentrations of ET-1 and endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide) were determined. A scoring system based on 9 clinical variables was used to assign horses to group B (quartile with greatest cumulative sco...
Demonstration of regional differences in equine ventricular myocardial velocity in normal 2-year-old Thoroughbreds with Doppler tissue imaging. Doppler tissue imaging (DTI) is a novel noninvasive method by which myocardial velocity can be assessed directly and it allows regional, rather than global, cardiac function to be evaluated. Objective: That regional differences in myocardial velocities exist within the equine ventricle. Objective: To develop a repeatable examination technique for DTI in horses, describe DTI findings in various regions of the normal equine ventricle, compare colour (CDTI) and spectral (SDTI) techniques of DTI, and document regional differences in myocardial velocity. Methods: Five regions of the ventricles (rig...
Scintigraphic evaluation of the distal tarsal region in horses with distal tarsal pain. Distal tarsal pain is a common reason for hind limb lameness, but diagnosis cannot always be made on radiographic examination. Scintigraphy may allow detection of subtle changes undetected by other diagnostic methods. We hypothesized that (1) distal tarsal pain would be associated with a loss of the expected pattern of radiopharmaceutical uptake (RU) detected in normal horses, (2) distal tarsal RU would be greater in limbs with tarsal pain than without pain, (3) RU in painful tarsi with radiographic evidence of osteoarthritis (OA) would be greater than in distal tarsal pain with no radiographi...
Gas arthroscopy for removal of osteochondral fragments of the palmar/plantar aspect of the metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal joint in horses. To evaluate the use of carbon dioxide (CO(2)) gas for joint distention during arthroscopy for removal of osteochondral (OC) fragments of the palmar/plantar aspect of the metacarpo (MCP)/metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joints in horses. Methods: Clinical study. Methods: Horses (26) with OC fragment(s) of palmar/plantar aspect of 1 or 2 MCP/MTP joint(s). Methods: OC fragments were removed using arthroscopic technique. Joint distention was maintained by isotonic Ringer's acetate at the beginning and at the end of the procedure but during fragment removal, CO(2) was used for joint distention. After surg...
Neovascularisation in chronic tendon injuries detected with colour Doppler ultrasound in horse and man: implications for research and treatment. Recent research on chronic painful Achilles tendons in humans using ultrasonography and immunohistochemistry, has demonstrated an association between neurovascular ingrowth and tendon pain. In horses, chronic debilitating tendon conditions are well-known to be very difficult to treat, and the background to impaired function and pain is not scientifically clarified. In a collaborative research project between the Sports Medicine Unit in Umeå and Strömsholm Equine Hospital, grey-scale ultrasonography (US) and colour Doppler (CD) examination were performed in ten horses with chronic tendon inju...
Musculoskeletal responses of 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses to early training. 8. Quantitative back-scattered electron scanning electron microscopy and confocal fluorescence microscopy of the epiphysis of the third metacarpal bone. To characterise and explain the increase in density evident by computerised tomography (CT) and radiography in companion studies as a response to training, in bone in the palmar and dorsal regions of the condyles of the third metacarpal bone (Mc3) of 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses. Methods: Compositional back-scattered electron (BSE) imaging in scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM) were conducted on polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)-embedded mediolateral slices of the right distal Mc3 from seven 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses trained on a racetrack and s...
[Focused extracorporeal shock wave therapy in an isolated calcification in the equine ligamentum nuchae–case report]. In recent years extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT) is used in veterinary medicine especially in equine orthopedics. Different ESWT generators are commonly used in equine medicine with varying energy density and depth of penetration. The presented case report described the treatment of a ligamentum nuchae calcification with focused extracorporeal shock wave therapy with SONOCUR Plus generator combined with SONOLINE Prima ultrasound. Negligible adverse effects, the non-invasive character of the treatment, the time-saving therapy, and the positive results make the focused extracorporeal sho...
Lameness associated with foot pain: results of magnetic resonance imaging in 199 horses (January 2001–December 2003) and response to treatment. The diagnosis of foot-related lameness often remains elusive and it can be difficult to offer rational treatment, or to predict outcome. Objective: To describe the spectrum of injuries of the foot identified using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), to determine their relative prevalence among MRI diagnoses and to establish the long-term results of treatment. Methods: The MR images of horses examined from January 2001--December 2003 were reviewed. Horses were selected for MRI if the pain causing lameness was localised to the foot using perineural analgesia but any clinical, radiological or ultra...
Problems in quantifying bone response to exercise in horses: a review. Detecting changes in bone during growth, training, rest from competition (spelling), and disease in horses requires imaging techniques that have a high level of accuracy and precision. Currently, most imaging techniques used in horses do not possess such characteristics and are more suitable for detecting end-stage disease than subtle changes. Some are incapable of detecting changes in bone size. Non-planar techniques should be used for estimating or determining bone strength. This review outlines available imaging techniques and shows why cross-sectional procedures are required to accurately ...
A review of equine dental disorders. Equine dentistry is a very important but until recently rather neglected area of equine practice, with many horses suffering from undiagnosed, painful dental disorders. A thorough clinical examination using a full mouth speculum is a pre-requisite to performing any equine dental procedure. Common incisor disorders include: prolonged retention of deciduous incisors, supernumerary incisors and overjet--the latter usually accompanied by cheek teeth (CT) overgrowths. Overjet can be surgically corrected, but perhaps should not be in breeding animals. In younger horses, traumatically fractured incis...
Injury of the collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint diagnosed by magnetic resonance. We describe the clinical, imaging, and necropsy findings of two horses with severe injury of the collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint diagnosed using magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. In MR images it was possible to examine the collateral ligaments of the DIP joint from the origin at the middle phalanx to the insertion on the distal phalanx. Both horses in this report had abnormal high signal intensity within the collateral ligaments of the DIP joint, and one horse had abnormal high signal intensity within the bone of the distal phalanx on short tau inversion recovery ...
Communications of normal nasal and paranasal cavities in computed tomography of horses. Heads from 15 male and female horses of various breeds and ages were examined with computed tomography under general anesthesia in dorsal recumbency. The main interest was the evaluation of the entire paranasal sinus system. Special attention was paid to the location, size, and shape of the conchomaxillary, nasomaxillary, frontomaxillary, and sphenopalatinal openings. The frontomaxillary opening was the largest aperture and was found to be age-dependent in size mostly. Orientation and shape of the openings were sagittal or horizontal; the narrowest of them was the slit-like nasomaxillary apert...
Advances in equine ultrasonography. The digital storage and transfer of images coupled with the development of the Internet have revolutionized diagnostic imaging. With the press of a button, practitioners can exploit the diagnostic skills of specialists anywhere in the world and enlist their help with challenging cases. This easy transfer of images and digital data should stimulate a greater number of multicenter studies so that the sensitivity and specificity of ultrasonographic techniques can be established in larger and more meaningful cohorts of patients. There is now no doubt that we can identify a plethora of conditions o...
Digital imaging advances and the future. Digitization of clinical data is becoming increasingly important in veterinary medicine. Current veterinary applications range from digital cameras to computed radiography. The opportunity for increased productivity and diagnostic capabilities makes the computerization of veterinary medicine especially exciting. Future trends seem to indicate that more veterinarians should have better technology available in their practices and more veterinarians should be connected to experts, clients, and each other.
Motion-correction techniques for standing equine MRI. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the distal extremities of the standing, sedated horse would be desirable if diagnostic quality images could be obtained. With the availability of extremity and special purpose magnet designs on the market, a system to safely accommodate the standing horse may gain increasing popularity. This paper considers the issue of motion that will need to be addressed to achieve successful, diagnostic quality images. The motion of the carpus and tarsus of five standing, sedated horses was quantified. The obtained motion records were then used to induce motion in cadave...
Sources and magnitude of variation of echocardiographic measurements in normal standardbred horses. The purpose of this study was to assess the intraobserver variation of various echocardiographic measures in standardbred trotters. Serial echocardiographic examinations were carried out on eight standardbred mares by one ultrasonographer for 5 separate days. During each examination, five nonconsecutive cardiac cycles (frames) were recorded and an average obtained for each individual measure. Various echocardiographic measures were obtained by use of two-dimensional (2-D), M-mode, color flow Doppler and pulsed wave Doppler echocardiography. The total variation in the echocardiographic measurem...
Evaluation of a standardised radiographic technique of the equine hoof. Radiography of the equine hoof is often used to obtain a diagnosis. Quantitative interpretation, especially for research purposes requires high quality and accuracy of radiographs. The purpose of this study was to describe and evaluate a radiographic technique for the lateromedial (LM) and the dorsopalmar (DP) view of the equine hoof. Ten radiographs for each view from one cadaver limb and from both front feet in a standing horse were taken in order to assess repeatability of the radiographic technique. The method requires easy to use adjustable and portable equipment and strictly defined exte...
Use of computed tomography angiography to evaluate the vascular anatomy of the distal portion of the forelimb of horses. To provide a detailed description of the vascular anatomy of the distal portion of the forelimbs of horses by use of computed tomography angiography (CTA). Methods: 6 forelimbs of 5 horses and 1 forelimb from an equine cadaver; none of the horses had orthopedic or vascular disease. Methods: Horses were anesthetized and CTA was conducted on the dependent forelimb. A catheter was inserted in the median artery, and contrast medium was infused at a rate of 3 mL/s. A computed tomography (CT) scanner was used to obtain contiguous slices from the region of the proximal sesamoid bones to the toe. All ...
