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Topic:Musculoskeletal System
The musculoskeletal system in horses encompasses the bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints that facilitate movement and provide structural support. This system is essential for locomotion, athletic performance, and overall health in equine species. The equine skeleton consists of approximately 205 bones, which are connected by joints and supported by a network of muscles and connective tissues. Tendons connect muscles to bones, while ligaments link bones to other bones, contributing to joint stability. The musculoskeletal system is subject to various conditions, including injuries, degenerative diseases, and developmental disorders, which can impact a horse's mobility and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, physiology, pathology, and treatment of musculoskeletal conditions in horses.
Surgical management of proximal articular fracture of the patella in a horse. A patellar fracture was identified radiographically in the right stifle of a mature Tennessee Walking Horse stallion. The horse was markedly lame (grade IV/V) on the right hindlimb. Due to the articular nature and small size of the fragment, surgical removal via arthrotomy was selected. A dorsomedial approach to the femoropatellar joint was used. The horse recovered well and has returned to training as a show horse by 8 months following surgery.
Results of treatment of subchondral bone cysts in the medial condyle of the equine femur with an autogenous cancellous bone graft. The results of surgical treatment of 10 subchondral bone cysts, all located in the medial femoral condyle, are presented. A cancellous bone graft was used in nine cases and a two component acrylic bone cement was used in the case of an extremely large cyst. Eight out of the 10 cases made a satisfactory clinical recovery.
Radiological investigations of osteochondrosis dissecans in Standardbred Trotters and Swedish Warmblood horses. A total of 106 Standardbred Trotters and 27 Swedish Warmblood horses, with a radiological diagnosis of osteochondrosis dissecans, were studied over a six year period. The majority were young horses. No statistical difference in frequency between the sexes was demonstrated. In both breeds osteochondrosis was most common in the hock joints, the site of predilection being the distal dorsal tip of the intermediate tibial ridge. On radiographs the lesions of the hock joints were graded on a scale from 0 to 5 according to size, number and localisation of defects and visible loose bodies. The sizes o...
Purchase examinations for performance horses. Performance horses should be thoroughly examined before sale to detect any defects that could render them unsuitable for the purchaser's intended use. With the horse in its stall, the eyes, nasolacrimal puncta, external ear canals and mouth are examined, the rectal temperature measured and the heart, lungs, trachea and sinuses auscultated. Moving the horse out of the stall, the head, parotid glands, mandibular lymph nodes, larynx, neck muscles, jugular veins and cervical vertebrae are inspected. The scapula, point of the shoulder, withers, tuber sacrale and point of the hip are palpated, after...
Relationship between intervertebral joint morphology and mobility in the equine thoracolumbar spine. The anatomical features of 21 equine thoracolumbar spines, obtained from horses with clinically normal backs, were examined and the results compared with recent data on the mobility of the joint complexes of the horse's spine. The thoracolumbar spine can be divided into four regions based upon the morphology of the joint complexes: the first thoracic intervertebral joint (T1-2), the cranial and mid thoracic region (T2-T16), the caudal thoracic and lumbar region (T16-L6) and the lumbosacral joint. The mobility of the intervertebral joints in each of these regions can be related to their morphol...
Congenital phalangeal hypoplasia in Equidae. Three cases of unilateral congenital phalangeal hypoplasia are described in 2 horses and 1 mule. Radiographic lesions include severe hypoplasia of the 3rd phalanx, and associated hypoplasia of the 2nd phalanx in 2 cases, and hypoplasia or aplasia of the navicular bone in 2 cases. All animals could ambulate but were lame. Two cases had palpable laxity at the level of the coronary band. Documented etiology was not determined for the dysgenesis, but possibilities include inherited transmission or an environmental teratogen.
Subluxation of the carpus in thirteen horses. The records of 13 horses of various breeds with subluxation of the radiocarpal, intercarpal or carpometacarpal joint, or combinations of these were reviewed. Subluxation was most common at the carpometacarpal joint (n = 10) and concomitant fractures of individual carpal bones or metacarpus II and IV were seen (n = 12).Treatment comprised of immobilization in a full leg plaster cast for from four to 18 weeks. Three animals were euthanized, two because of cast complications and one because of a request by the owner. The remaining ten were saved to function as breeding animals.
Anatomy of the tarsal tendons of the equine tibialis cranialis and peroneus tertius muscles. Tendons of insertion of the equine tibialis cranialis muscle and peroneus tertius muscle (PT) were dissected grossly. Precise areas of tendon attachment and fiber arrangements within the tendons were described for the dorsal and medial tendons of the tibialis cranialis, and for the superficial lateral, deep lateral, dorsal, and medial tendons of the PT. Direct attachment of the dorsal and medial tendons of the PT into the periosteum of the central and 3rd tarsal bones and the 3rd metatarsal bone indicates that the PT may be involved in the pathogenesis of hock lamenesses.
Skeletal abnormalities in young horses associated with zinc toxicity and hypocuprosis. Four young horses grazing pastures near industrial plants developed illthrift, lameness and skeletal abnormalities characterised by periarticular enlargement of the long bones. The clinical signs and lesions were attributed to hypocuprosis induced by an excessive intake of zinc from pasture. High pasture intakes of iron may have further compounded the problem.
Midsagittal intraarticular fracture of the third phalanx in a colt. A 6-month-old Quarter Horse colt, with severe left foreleg lameness of 6 weeks' duration, had swelling of the distal interphalangeal joint and a smaller-than-normal left front foot. Radiographs revealed a nondisplaced, midsagittal, intraarticular fracture of P3, which was treated with an eggbar shoe with 2 quarter clips, and stall rest for 10 weeks. The colt was sound after 10 weeks.
Bone strain in the equine tibia: inertia as a cause of the presupport peak. Strain tracings obtained from the tibial cortex of walking ponies reveal peaks in the principal tension and compression strains occurring immediately before and after the support phase. Evidence is presented that the presupport peak is caused by inertial forces.
Functional anatomy of the equine tarsocrural collateral ligaments. Equine tarsocrural collateral ligaments (CL) were dissected grossly. The areas of attachment and fiber arrangements were described for the long lateral CL, long medial CL, 3 short lateral CL, and 3 short medial CL. Sequential cutting of CL in any order indicated that the short medial CL were responsible for the snap-joint phenomenon observed at the equine tarsocrural joint.
Ultrasonographic detection of fistulous tracts and foreign objects in muscles of horses. The results from water-bath studies on equine muscle in which foreign material had been inserted and then scanned ultrasonographically were compared with the results from scanning of the muscles of horses hospitalized for diagnosis of suspected foreign objects embedded in muscle. The water-bath studies showed that bone, wood, and large tendons all will demonstrate acoustic shadowing, but that subtle differences in the characteristics of the relative hyperechogenicity and acoustic shadows facilitate elimination of certain considerations in the differential diagnosis. Ultrasonography was effecti...
Navicular bone disease: results of treatment using egg-bar shoeing technique. Although the diagnostic criteria of navicular disease are generally accepted in practice, their limitations are recognised. However, the authors believe that navicular disease per se is reversible and that only secondary changes like adhesions to the deep flexor tendon or spur formations are irreversible. This hypothesis is supported by the results presented of the effect of the application of an egg-bar shoe, which caused permanent cessation of signs of navicular disease in more than 50 per cent of treated cases. The egg-bar shoeing technique can be usefully applied in practice.
Fibre types, enzyme activities and substrate utilisation in skeletal muscles of horses competing in endurance rides. Venous blood samples and middle gluteal muscle biopsies were obtained from 21 horses taking part in 100 km or 50 km endurance rides. Group A consisted of seven horses competing over 100 km (four horses completed the ride). Group B consisted of the six horses that were among the 10 best over 50 km while the other eight horses of Group C completed 50 km at a slower speed. Blood lactate, glycerol and creatine kinase increased in all groups while aspartate aminotransferase levels were higher only in Group A. No changes was found in blood glucose in Groups B and C while horses in Group A had lower ...
Long-term results and complications of proximal interphalangeal arthrodesis in horses. A retrospective study was made of 21 horses in which proximal interphalangeal arthrodesis had been performed. The right hindlimb was the most often affected (52%). Acute trauma was the most common reason for performing the surgery (62%). Follow-up data were obtained from the owners regarding return to serviceability . When available, follow-up radiographs and clinical examinations were reviewed. Of the 20 horses on which follow-up information was available, 16 were serviceable . Of the horses in which a hindlimb was arthrodesed , 86% were serviceable , whereas 67% of the horses affected in the...
Bone strain in the equine tibia: an in vivo strain gauge analysis. Rosette strain gauges were bonded to the cranial, caudal, and medial surfaces of the tibia in the middiaphyseal region of 6 adult ponies. While the ponies were walking, the cranial side was mainly subjected to tension, and the caudal side, to compression. The compression strain on the caudal side was 1.5 times greater than the tension strain on the cranial side. None of these principal strains was aligned along the long axis of the bone; both deviated laterally from the long axis. On the medial surface, the principal strain deviated caudally about 40 degrees from the long axis. From analysis o...
Dynamic strain similarity in vertebrates; an alternative to allometric limb bone scaling. Galileo (1638) observed that "nature cannot grow a tree nor construct an animal beyond a certain size, while retaining the proportions which suffice in the case of a smaller structure". However, subsequent measurement has shown that limb bone dimensions are scaled geometrically with body size (Alexander et al., 1979a), and that the material properties of their constituent bone tissue are similar in animals over a wide range of body weight (Sedlin & Hirsch, 1966; Yamada, 1970; Burstein et al., 1972; Biewener, 1982). If, as suggested in previous scaling arguments (McMahon, 1973; Biewener, 19...
Fetlock annular ligament desmotomy: a report of 24 cases. Restriction of free movement of the flexor tendons through the fetlock canal results in lameness. The commonest cause was chronic synovitis of the digital sheath. The condition is characterised by an unremitting lameness, synovial distension and a notch on the caudal aspect of the limb. The condition can be relieved by section of the annular ligament of the fetlock. In a series of 24 cases 16 horses returned to work with no recurrence of lameness, three cases were lost to follow up and five animals remained lame; three of these had intercurrent disease.
